Optometry Semester 1

Human Anatomy and Physiology, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Scalp Anatomy

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Scalp Anatomy Human Anatomy and Physiology START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION SCALP LAYERS OF SCALP Scalp Anatomy MENINGES DURA MATER Venous blood from the brain drains into venous sinuses between the layers of dura mater ARACHNOID MATER PIA MATER HEAD AND NECK OBJECTIVES Introduction Describe the layers of scalp Identify the bones, joints, cavities and views of the skull Describe the structure (processes, spines, body, rami ) and functions of cervical vertebrae Describe functions and innervation of muscles of the scalp, facial expression, mastication and neck Describe parts band functions of the brain Describe cranial nerves Outline major blood supply and lymphatic drainage of the head and neck Describe surface anatomy of the head and neck INTRODUCTION The head and neck region of the body contains many important structures compressed into a relatively small area The head is formed mainly by the skull with the brain and its covering meninges enclosed in the cranial cavity. The special senses, the eye and the ear, lie within the skull bones or in the cavities bounded by them. The brain gives rise to 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which leave the brain and pass through foramina and fissures in the skull. All the cranial nerves are distributed to structures in the head and neck, except the 10th, which also supplies structures in the chest and abdomen SCALP The scalp consists of skin (normally hair bearing) and subcutaneous tissue that cover the neurocranium from the superior nuchal lines on the occipital bone to the supra-orbital margins of the frontal bone Laterally, the scalp extends over the temporal fascia to the zygomatic arches. LAYERS OF SCALP Skin: thin, except in the occipital region, containing many sweat and sebaceous glands and hair follicles. It has an abundant arterial supply and good venous and lymphatic drainage. Connective tissue: forms the thick, dense, richly vascularized subcutaneous layer that is well supplied with cutaneous nerves. Aponeurosis (epicranial aponeurosis): the broad, strong, tendinous sheet that covers the calvaria and serves as the attachment for muscle bellies converging from the forehead and occiput and from temporal bone on each side Scalp Anatomy Loose areolar tissue: a sponge-like layer including potential spaces that may distend with fluid as a result of injury or infection. This layer allows free movement of the scalp proper (the first three layers—skin, connective tissue, and epicranial aponeurosis) over the underlying calvaria. Pericranium: a dense layer of connective tissue that forms the external periosteum of the neurocranium. MENINGES The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord are completely covered by three membranes, the meninges lying between the skull and the brain, and between vertebrae and the spinal cord. These are Dura mater Arachnoid mater Pia mater DURA MATER The cerebral dura mater consists of two layers of dense fibrous tissue. The outer layer takes the place of the periosteum on the inner surface of the skull bones, and the inner layer provides a protective covering for the brain. The dura mater forms several structures that separate the cranial cavity into compartments and protect the brain from displacement. These are The falx cerebri separates the hemispheres of the cerebrum The falx cerebelli separates the lobes of the cerebellum The tentorium cerebelli separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum Venous blood from the brain drains into venous sinuses between the layers of dura mater The superior sagittal sinus that runs across the top of the brain is formed by falx cerebri and the tentorium cerebelli forms the straight and transverse sinuses. The epidural space is a potential space that may exist between the dura mater and the skull. If there is hemorrhage in the brain, blood may collect here. The subdural space is a space existing between the dura mater and the middle layer of the meninges, the arachnoid mater ARACHNOID MATER The arachnoid or arachnoid mater is the middle layer of the meninges. In some areas, it projects into the sinuses formed by the dura mater. These projections are the arachnoid granulation or arachnoid villi. . They transfer cerebrospinal fluid from the ventricles back into the bloodstream. The subarachnoid space lies between the arachnoid and pia mater. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. All blood vessels entering the brain, as well as cranial nerves pass through this space. PIA MATER This is a fine connective tissue containing many minute blood vessels. It adheres to the brain, completely covering the convolutions and dipping into each fissure. It continues downward covering the spinal cord. Beyond the end of the cord it continues as the filum terminale, pierces the arachnoid tube and goes on, with the dura mater, to fuse with the Periosteum of the coccyx. ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESALL OPTOMETRY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Request a formatted copy for offline study, printing or revision. GET PDF NOTES ON WHATSAPP

Human Anatomy and Physiology, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Basic concepts of structural organization of human body

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Basic concepts of structural organization of human body Human Anatomy and Physiology START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic At the end of this session, a student should be able to; DEFINITION OF THE TERM ANATOMY, CYTOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY APPROACHES OF STUDYING ANATOMY Gross (Macroscopic Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy Developmental Anatomy Specialized Branches of Anatomy DEFINITION OF TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE POSITIONS/LOCATION, LATERALITY AND BODY MOVEMENTS Positional and Locational Terms: ct Positions and Directions Anatomical Planes Laterality Terms: Terms for Body Movements: Movements Movements of the Movements of the Wrist & EXPLAIN BODY REGION, CAVITIES AND ANATOMICAL PLANES Abdominal Regions Abdominal regions Basic concepts of structural organization of human body Basic body planes or sections Body planes and sections Sectional Anatomy 2. BODY CAVITIES The two major cavities of the body Organs-(Abdominal-Pelvic Cavity) Thoracic Cavity and its Divisions The Mediastinum Regions(subdivision) of mediastinum The middle mediastinum The superior mediastinum The anterior mediastinum Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity Basic concepts of structural organization of human body At the end of this session, a student should be able to; Define the terms anatomy, cytology and histology Explain approaches of studying anatomy Explain anatomical positions Explain body regions Explain anatomical planes Explain body cavities Explain relationship and comparison of different parts of the body Explain different types of body movements Describe structural organization levels of human body DEFINITION OF THE TERM ANATOMY, CYTOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY ANATOMY It is a Greek word ( Ana-Tome): meaning cutting up. Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Cytology – study of the cell Histology – study of tissues APPROACHES OF STUDYING ANATOMY SUBDIVISION Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy Developmental Anatomy Specialized Branches of Anatomy Gross (Macroscopic Anatomy Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg) Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin Microscopic Anatomy Cytology – study of the cell Histology – study of tissues Developmental Anatomy  Embryology – study of developmental changes of the body before birth(embryogenesis and subsequent organogenesis) Specialized Branches of Anatomy  Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by disease Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by X ray Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a sub-cellular level DEFINITION OF TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE POSITIONS/LOCATION, LATERALITY AND BODY MOVEMENTS Anatomical Position The anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical references. When in the anatomical position, the subject stands (Fig 1.5) Standing upright Facing the observer, head level Eyes facing forward Feet flat on the floor Arms at the sides Palms turned forward (ventral) Positional and Locational Terms: Superior (Cranial): Refers to a structure being closer to the head or higher than another structure. Example: The heart is superior to the stomach. Inferior (Caudal): Refers to a structure being closer to the feet or lower than another structure. Example: The stomach is inferior to the lungs. ct Anterior (Ventral): Refers to the front or towards the front of the body. Example: The chest is anterior to the spine. Posterior (Dorsal): Refers to the back or towards the back of the body. Example: The spine is posterior to the heart. ct Medial: Refers to a structure being closer to the midline of the body. Example: The nose is medial to the ears. Lateral: Refers to a structure being farther from the midline of the body. Example: The arms are lateral to the chest. ct Proximal: (Reference to the extremities only) Refers to a structure being closer to the root (point of attachment) of the limb than another structure in that limb Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist. Distal:(Reference to the extremities only) Refers to a structure being further away from the root (point of attachment) of the limb than another structure in the limb Example: The fingers are distal to the elbow. Positions and Directions Ventral  Towards the front or belly  You Vent out or your nose and mouth. Dorsal  Towards the back  Like the Dorsal fin of a dolphin. Positions and Directions Prone  Lying face down  Like a Pro Baseball player sliding into Home. Supine  Lying face up  Lying on your spine and you can have soup poured into your mouth. Unilateral  Pertaining to one side of the body Bilateral  Pertaining to both sides of the body Anatomical Planes Fixed lines of reference along which the body is often divided or sectioned to facilitate viewing of its structures Allow one to obtain a three-dimensional perspective by studying the body from different views ct Superficial: Refers to a structure being closer to the surface of the body. Example: The skin is superficial to the muscles. Deep: Refers to a structure being farther from the surface of the body / Refers to a structure being closer to the core of the body than another structure Example: The bones are deep to the muscles. Laterality Terms: Unilateral: Refers to something affecting or located on one side of the body. Example: A unilateral headache affects only one side of the head. Bilateral: Refers to something affecting or located on both sides of the body. Example: Bilateral lung infection means both lungs are affected. ct Ipsilateral: Refers to something occurring on the same side of the body. Example: The right arm and right leg are ipsilateral. Contralateral: Refers to something occurring on the opposite side of the body. Example: The right arm and left leg are contralateral. Terms for Body Movements: Flexion  Bending a joint or decreasing the angle between two bones  In the Fetal Position we are flexing our joints Extension  Straightening a joint or increasing the angle between two bones  In the Anatomical Position we are extending our joints Hyperextension  Excessive extension of the parts at

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Introduction to Computers

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Introduction to Computers Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPUTERS LEARNING OBJECTIVES – What is a Computer? The history of Computer The History of Computer cont.… The History of Computer cont… CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER Other Characteristics are: CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF COMPUTERS TYPES OF COMPUTER BASED ON SIZE Types of computer based on size cont.….. Picture of a Supercomputer 1.Types of computer based on size cont.… Picture of a Mainframe computer. 1.Types of computer based on size cont.…. 2. Types of computer based on Generation 3.Types of computer based on Purposes 4. Types of computer based on Technology The Parts of a Computer System HARDWARE SOFTWARE DATA Types of Hardware The CPU (PROCESSOR) Memory How Memory is Measured Input and Output Devices Storage Devices What is Software? System Software Application Software Differences between System software and application software Computer device connections Computer Booting Management of Folders and Files Any question INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPUTERS SESSION 1 1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this session, you should be able to: Define computer Explain the history of computer Outline characteristics of computer Identify types of computers according to size, generation, purpose/function, technology Identify structure/anatomy of computer (input, CPU, and output) Identify components of a computer (Hardware and Software) Explain types of computer software Explain types of computer hardware (processing, input, output storage Perform computer device connections Perform computer booting (cold and warm booting) Manage folders and files (create, rename, delete, restore, copy, move, search, organize and transfer from computer to removable storage devices) 2 – What is a Computer? Computer is an electronic device used to process data. Computer can convert data into information that is useful to people. OR Computer: is an electronic device that takes data, stores it, processes that data and produces information. Computer: is a machine or device which accepts data in one form and processes it to produce an output of information. Data: can be defined as unprocessed facts/Raw facts . 3 The history of Computer Mechanical era: In the 19th century, Charles Babbage designed the analytical engine, a programmable mechanical computer, and Ada Lovelace wrote the first algorithm for it. First electronic computers: The ENIAC, considered the first programmable electronic computer, was completed in the 1940s. 4 The History of Computer cont.… 1. First Generation (1940–1956) – Vacuum Tubes: Used vacuum tubes for processing. Very large, consumed a lot of power, and produced much heat. Programming was done in machine language. Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC I. 2. Second Generation (1956–1963) – Transistors: Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors Smaller, more reliable, and faster. Used assembly language. Example: IBM 1401. 5 The History of Computer cont… 3. Third Generation (1964–1971) – Integrated Circuits (ICs): Used ICs (multiple transistors on a chip). Increased processing speed and efficiency. Used high-level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN. Computers became more accessible to businesses. 4. Fourth Generation (1971–1980) – Microprocessors: Introduced the microprocessor (entire CPU on a single chip). Rise of personal computers (PCs). Increased power, speed, and storage. Example: Intel 4004, Apple I, IBM PC. 6 The History of Computer cont… 5. Fifth Generation (1980-Present) – AI & Advanced Technologies: This era is characterized by the rise of personal computers, the internet, and the integration of artificial intelligence and other advanced technologies. In this Modern era: Computers have become smaller and more powerful, evolving into laptops, smartphones, and wearable devices. 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER THE TWO PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER ARE:- A computer responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. A computer can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions (a program). 8 Other Characteristics are: SPEED : Computer can perform millions of instructions per second.. ACCURACY : Since Computer is programmed, so what ever input we give it gives accurate results. STORAGE : Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate format. DILIGENCE : Computer Doesn’t get tired or lose concentration. VERSATILITY : Computer can perform different types of tasks at the same time. NO IQ : Computer does not work without instruction. NO FEELING : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience AUTOMATION: Computer Works automatically after programming. 9 CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF COMPUTERS We can classify types of computers based on the following criteria:- Types of computer Based on size Types of computer Based on generation Types of computer Based on purposes/function Types of computer Based on Technology 10 TYPES OF COMPUTER BASED ON SIZE Supercomputer Mainframe Minicomputer Workstation Microcomputer 11 Types of computer based on size cont.….. 1. Supercomputer It is Extremely fast, used for scientific simulations, weather forecasting and space exploration. It is Very accurate It has High processing speed Can tackle complex tasks such as breaking codes and modeling worldwide weather system. An example of supercomputer: IBM Deep Blue 12 Picture of a Supercomputer 13 1.Types of computer based on size cont.… 2. Mainframe These are the very largest computers; they can occupy more than one room. For example: IBM 370, S/390. A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously like ATM Transactions. They are: Large in size Expensive due to high cost of production High storage capacity and high processing speed Used in organization to process a bulk of information Generally used by large businesses to provide centralized storage, Processing and management for large amounts of data. 14 Picture of a Mainframe computer. 15 1.Types of computer based on size cont.…. 3. Minicomputer A multi-user computer: Smaller than mainframe but more powerful than Micro-computer. computers that are capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously. These are large powerful machines typically serving a network of simple terminals. Example of minicomputer; Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra, HP 3000 series, IBM AS/400,PDP series. Very powerful and expensive Used in medium scale organizations where it is too expensive to use mainframe computers 16 1.Types of computer based on size cont.… 4. Workstation Powerful desktop computers designed for specialized tasks such as medical imaging. Such tasks

Medical Ethics and Professionalism, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Ethics, Morality, Culture and Values

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Ethics, Morality, Culture and Values Medical Ethics and Professionalism Read the consent, confidentiality and source corrections alongside these notes. START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic Learning tasks Definition of terms What is ethics Morality One respects each and every basic goods or value of human existence Why morality in health care Culture Values Ethics, Morality, Culture and Values Virtue is a type of behavior that reflects the person’s moral excellence (e.g. kindness) VIRTUE ETHICS DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS RELIGIOUS WORLD VIEW Patient Privacy: Confidentiality: Confidentiality in Practice: Why are Privacy and Confidentiality Important? Group work Ethics in Medical radiology and Imaging Learning tasks By the end to the session the students will be able to; Describe ethics, morality, culture and values Definition of terms Duty; That which one is required to perform by law or morality Patient; refers to a person who is sick with or being treated for an illness or injury or an individual receiving medical care What is ethics Ethics; is a code or set of principles by which people seek to live their lives Essentially, ethics has to do with what we perceive to be right or wrong, good or bad Medical ethics involve issues that may rise in treating individuals based on values, facts and logics Ethical decisions are as essential to patient care as clinical and technical ones Ethical decisions are as integral to patient care as clinical and technical ones. Morality Morality; a set way of conducting oneself OR The quality of human acts by which we call them right or wrong, good or evil The standards that enable the people to live cooperatively in the group or society Human action is right when it conforms with norms, rules or law of morality One respects each and every basic goods or value of human existence Among these goods; is human life itself, including health, bodily integrity, friendship, religion etc. Why morality in health care Health is an essential need of a human person Morality guides us to the satisfaction to that need Culture Culture can be defined as the way of life for an entire society including arts, beliefs and practices of population that are passed down from generation and generation Organization culture is in according to the shared values, beliefs, behavior, attitudes, experience built in work place symbols / assumptions, dressing code etc. Culture development is driven by professionals who share similar values and objectives Values Values are a set of principles or standards of behavior; (in form of attitudes, feelings) they are regarded desirable important and held in high esteem by a particular society in which a person lives Personal values represent professional’s conceptions of what it means both to be and to act as a good professional Ethics, Morality, Culture and Values The values are in the form of goals, attitudes interests, feelings, conviction and beliefs embraced by professionals serve to guide their thinking, actions and interactions with patients The professional has an obligation to individuals, to society and the country, to profession, coworkers, workers in other field and to the self Virtue is a type of behavior that reflects the person’s moral excellence (e.g. kindness) OR The moral strength of human being’s will in fulfilling his duty The characters or quality that are considered morally good e.g. honest, kindness, obedience, fairness, good judgement) VIRTUE ETHICS Virtue ethics, focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on the specific actions he or she performs. Some people see the different aspects of moral character, which we call virtues, (such as honesty, loyalty, kindness) as a suitable foundation for professional ethics. Virtue ethics…. is about developing good character traits and being the kind of person who naturally acts morally DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS Deontology comes from the Greek Deon, meaning “duty” and logos, meaning “word” This theory holds that we are obliged to do certain things, regardless of the consequences, simply because it is the right thing to do. Deontological theories concentrate on the act being performed. According to deontological theories, certain types of act are intrinsically good or bad, i.e. good or bad in themselves. These acts ought or ought not to be performed, irrespective of the consequences. There are many different ways of deciding what is the “right thing” Deontological ethics…..is focuses on following or fulfilling duties, regardless of the outcomes TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS This word comes from the Greek word telos, meaning “end” and logos meaning “word”. These theories differ completely from deontological ethics. They teach that actions are judged good or bad, right or wrong, on the basis of the consequences they produce. These theories hold that we ought always to act in the way that brings about the best consequences. It doesn’t matter what those acts are; the end justifies the means. All that matters for ethics is making the world a better place. How we achieve that is given secondary importance. Teleological ethics…..based on judges actions based on the results they produce ,aiming for the best possible outcome RELIGIOUS WORLD VIEW Religious world view…..is shaped by faith in a higher power and religious teachings often offering guidance on moral and ethical behavior All religions promote certain moral values and virtues, and try to influence the moral behavior of their particular followers. There are considerable areas of ethical teaching that the worlds religions share in common. However, although they may be similar on a surface levAll religions promote certain moral values and virtues, and try to influence the moral behavior of their particular followers. There are considerable areas of ethical teaching that the worlds religions share in common. However, although they may be similar on a surface level, but when we dig deeper we find the fundamental beliefs and teachings are very different. If we try to claim that they are all true, then these differences become a real problem. el, but when we dig deeper we find the fundamental beliefs and teachings are very different. If we try to claim that

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Health Information Systems and DHIS2

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Health Information Systems and DHIS2 Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic Health Information Systems and DHIS2 INFORMATION SYSTEMS HEALTH INFORMATION Intelligence Systems INFORMATION • Population Health Management Morten Hertzum. Login Page: Health Information Systems and DHIS2 HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN USE OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN MANAGING HEALTH INFORMATIONINFORMATION SYSTEMAn information system is a set of interconnected components that work together to collect, process, store, and distribute information to support decisionmaking, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization. Information systems play a vital role in managing and leveraging information to achieve business goals and objectives. These systems are designed to handle data in various forms and provide valuable insights for users at different levels within an organization.COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEMPeople: Users who interact with the system, including those who input data, manage the system, and use information for decision-making. Data: Raw facts and figures are processed to create meaningful information. Data can be structured (organized in a specific format, like a database) or unstructured (e.g., text, images, audio). Processes: Procedures and algorithms that manipulate and process data to generate information. This includes data entry, storage, retrieval, and analysis.Information Technology (IT): Hardware and software components that enable the functioning of the information system. This includes computers, servers, networks, databases, and software applications. Communication Channels: Systems and networks that facilitate the flow of information within and between organizations. This includes internet connections, intranets, and communication protocols.CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS BASED ON THEIR SCOPE AND FUNCTIONSTransaction Processing Systems (TPS) Record and process day-to-day transactions of an organization, such as sales, purchases, and inventory changes. Management Information Systems (MIS) Provide summarized, structured information to support managerial decision-making. MIS typically produce regular reports and summaries.Decision Support Systems (DSS) Assist in decision-making at the management level by providing interactive and ad-hoc reports, analysis tools, and modeling capabilities. Executive Information Systems (EIS) Serve top-level executives by providing strategic information and key performance indicators (KPIs) for high-level decision-making.Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems Integrate various business processes and functions across an organization, facilitating seamless information flow and improving efficiency. Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) Capture, organize, and apply the collective knowledge and expertise within an organization.Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems Manage interactions with customers, streamline sales and marketing processes, and enhance customer service. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Capture, analyze, and display spatial or geographic data, supporting decision-making related to locations and spatial relationships.COMMON TYPES OF HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEMSElectronic Health Records (EHRs) Comprehensive digital records that contain a patient's health information, including medical history, diagnoses, medications, allergies, immunization status, and test results. Purpose: Facilitate secure sharing of patient information among healthcare providers and enhance overall care coordination.Health Information Exchange (HIE) Systems Platforms that enable the electronic sharing of patient information among different healthcare organizations, such as hospitals, clinics, and laboratories. Purpose: Support continuity of care, reduce redundant tests, and improve collaboration among healthcare providers.Picture Archiving and Communication System (PACS) Systems that manage and store medical images, such as X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, in a digital format. PACS allows for the retrieval, distribution, and interpretation of these images. Purpose: Enhance collaboration among radiologists and other specialists, improve diagnostic processes, and reduce the need for physical film.Laboratory Information System (LIS) Systems that manage and store information related to laboratory tests, including sample processing, results, and quality control. Purpose: Streamline laboratory workflows, improve accuracy, and facilitate the timely reporting of test results.Radiology Information System (RIS) Systems designed specifically for managing radiology workflows, including scheduling, tracking, and reporting on radiological procedures and images. Purpose: Enhance the efficiency of radiology departments, improve communication, and ensure proper tracking of imaging studies.Pharmacy Information System Systems that manage and automate pharmacyrelated processes, including medication dispensing, inventory management, and prescription processing. Purpose: Improve medication safety, reduce errors, and streamline pharmacy operations.Telehealth and Telemedicine Systems Platforms that use information and communication technologies to provide healthcare services remotely. This includes virtual consultations, remote monitoring, and telehealth applications. Purpose: Increase accessibility to healthcare services, especially in remote areas, and support remote patient monitoring and virtual care.Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS) Software applications that provide healthcare professionals with information and recommendations to aid clinical decision-making. Purpose: Improve diagnostic accuracy, guide treatment decisions, and enhance patient care through evidence-based guidance.Public Health Information Systems Systems that support public health initiatives, including disease surveillance, outbreak tracking, and health promotion programs. Purpose: Facilitate the collection, analysis, and dissemination of public health data for effective disease prevention and control.Health Analytics and Business Intelligence Systems Systems that use data analytics tools to derive insights from large healthcare datasets, supporting population health management and performance improvement. Purpose: Enable evidence-based decision-making, identify trends, and improve the overall quality and efficiency of healthcare services.FUNCTIONS OF HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEMS• Patient Data Management Electronic Health Records (EHR) Management Health Information Exchange (HIE) Clinical Decision Support Order Entry and Results Reporting Telehealth and Telemedicine Support Public Health SurveillanceCONT… Health Analytics and Reporting Administrative and Billing Support • Population Health Management Quality Improvement and Performance Monitoring Security and Privacy ManagementCONCEPT OF DHIS2DHIS2, which stands for District Health Information Software 2, is an open-source software platform designed for the collection, management, analysis, and visualization of health data. It is specifically tailored for the health sector and is widely used by governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international agencies for health information management.HISTORY OF DHIS2The original DHIS, the predecessor to DHIS2, was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It emerged as a tool for health information management at the district level, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. In the early 2000s, efforts were made to transition DHIS from a standalone desktop applications to a web-based platform. This shift aimed to improve accessibility, usability, and scalability.CONT… The development of DHIS2 began around 2004 under the leadership of the Health Information Systems Programme (HISP) at the University of Oslo in Norway. The project was initiated by Dr. Jørn Braa and Dr. Morten Hertzum. As an open-source project, DHIS2 continues to undergo ongoing development. Regular updates and releases introduce new features,

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Planned Preventive Maintenance

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Planned Preventive Maintenance Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic What is PPM? Planned Preventive Maintenance TYPES OF PPM Objectives of Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM) 4. Ensure Safety & Compliance significances of PPM 2. Improved safety 5. Better reliability BRAIN STORM??? PPM procedures to protect the computer from environmental damage 2. Protection from Extreme Temperatures 3. Protection from Moisture General Preventive Maintenance Steps PPM Procedures to Protect Computers from Power Surges 2. Install Surge Protectors 3. Implement Proper Power Management 4. Ensure Proper Electrical Grounding 5. Schedule Routine Inspections & Maintenance PPM Procedures to Protect Computers from Malware, Adware, and Viruses 2. Install and Maintain Security Software 4. Safe Internet and Email Practices 6. Restrict External Device Use Possible Questions Introduction to Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM) What is PPM? Planned preventative maintenance is a form of scheduled or planned maintenance that is carried out on a piece of equipment or machinery on a regular basis. Planned preventative maintenance is used to reduce machine downtime, keep the performance of the machine level high and prevent issues from occurring. PPMs are incorporated into machine service plans to prevent high levels of reactive maintenance, instead, a good PPM program can turn reactive work into a predictive and proactive strategy. OR Planned Preventative Maintenance (PPM) is a proactive maintenance strategy where equipment, systems, and assets are serviced at scheduled intervals to prevent unexpected failures. The goal is to keep everything in optimal working condition, minimize downtime, and extend the lifespan of critical assets. This method is widely used across industries to ensure efficiency and reliability. Planned Preventive Maintenance Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM) is a proactive approach to maintenance that involves regularly scheduled inspections, tests, and repairs to equipment, facilities, and systems in order to prevent breakdowns and minimize the risk of equipment failure. The goal of PPM is to extend the lifespan of equipment and facilities, improve their performance and reliability, and reduce the risk of downtime and unplanned repairs. TYPES OF PPM Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM) is categorized into different types based on scheduling, execution, and purpose. Below are the main types: 1. Time-Based Maintenance (TBM) : Maintenance performed at scheduled intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, or annually) regardless of equipment condition. ✔ Example: Changing air filters in computers every three months. ✔ Use Case: Suitable for components with predictable wear and tear. 2. Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) : Maintenance is performed when equipment shows signs of wear or potential failure. ✔ Example: Cleaning dust buildup from a computer’s cooling fan when temperatures start rising. ✔ Use Case: Used for critical systems where early warning signs indicate maintenance needs. Planned Preventive Maintenance 3. Predictive Maintenance (PdM) : Uses data and monitoring tools (e.g., sensors, AI, machine learning) to predict failures before they happen. ✔ Example: Monitoring server temperature and scheduling fan replacements before overheating occurs. ✔ Use Case: Applied in high-tech environments where system downtime must be minimized. 4. Risk-Based Maintenance (RBM) : Prioritizes maintenance based on risk assessment, focusing on high-risk equipment first. ✔ Example: Regularly inspecting UPS systems in hospitals to prevent sudden power failures. ✔ Use Case: Useful in healthcare, aviation, and industrial sectors where failures can have severe consequences. Planned Preventive Maintenance 5. Corrective Preventive Maintenance: A combination of preventive and corrective maintenance, addressing minor issues before they escalate. ✔ Example: Replacing a hard drive that shows bad sectors before it completely fails. ✔ Use Case: Ideal for IT systems and industrial machinery 6. Prescriptive Maintenance (RxM) : Uses advanced analytics and AI to suggest the best maintenance actions. ✔ Example: An AI-powered system analyzing historical data and recommending when to replace server components. ✔ Use Case: Applied in smart hospitals, IoT-driven industries, and cloud computing environments. NOTE: By implementing the right type of PPM, organizations can enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and extend equipment lifespan Objectives of Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM) Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM) is designed to ensure the efficiency, reliability, and longevity of equipment. The key objectives include: 1. Minimize Equipment Failure & Downtime ✔ Prevents unexpected breakdowns by addressing potential issues early. ✔ Ensures continuous operation, reducing disruptions in workplaces like hospitals and data centers. 2. Extend Equipment Lifespan ✔ Reduces wear and tear, keeping systems in optimal condition. ✔ Prevents premature replacement of expensive components. 3. Reduce Maintenance & Operating Costs ✔ Avoids costly emergency repairs by addressing small issues before they escalate. ✔ Improves energy efficiency, lowering electricity and operational costs. 4. Ensure Safety & Compliance ✔ Reduces risks of accidents caused by equipment failure. ✔ Helps organizations comply with industry regulations and safety standards (e.g., ISO, OSHA). 5. Improve Performance & Reliability ✔ Keeps equipment operating at peak efficiency. ✔ Reduces system lag, overheating, and software malfunctions. 6. Optimize Resource Utilization ✔ Ensures spare parts and labor are used efficiently. ✔ Reduces unnecessary downtime, maximizing productivity. 7. Protect Data & IT Systems ✔ Prevents hardware failures that can lead to data loss. ✔ Reduces security risks by keeping software and firmware updated. significances of PPM Planned preventative maintenance (PPM) offers several advantages, including: 1. Increased equipment lifespan Regular pre maintenance can help extend the lifespan of equipment and reduce the likelihood of breakdowns and failures. 2. Improved safety By identifying and fixing potential hazards before they cause an issue, PPM can help improve safety for employees and equipment. 3. Increased efficiency Well-maintained equipment runs more efficiently and effectively, reducing the need for repairs and downtime and increasing productivity. 4. Cost savings Regular maintenance can help identify small problems before they become big and expensive issues, reducing the need for costly repairs and replacements 5. Better reliability PPM helps to ensure that equipment is always in good working order, reducing the risk of unexpected breakdowns and helping to maintain a reliable production schedule. 6. Improved facilities appearance Regular maintenance can help keep facilities looking their best, improving the overall appearance and reputation of the business. 7. Better decision-making By keeping track of equipment performance and maintenance activities, PPM can

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Internet and Email Skills

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Internet and Email Skills Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic Session 04: INTERNET What Is the Internet? Other types of network are: Types of network cont.…… Internet connects millions of computers, webpages, websites, and servers together. 1.Hub Difference between Internet and Intranet How do I connect to the Internet? Internet Service Provider Modem What is Web or WWW? What is Browser? URL (UNIFORM RESOURCES LOCATOR) Protocol Domain name (top level domain) DOMAIN NAME Domain name of a host computer includes Example Common Abbreviations in URLs Internet Communications Types of Internet service Advantages of using internet Internet and Email Skills Disadvantages of using internet Search information using internet There are many different search engines you can use, but some of the most popular include Google, Yahoo!, and Bing. How to search information on the internet(Google) Homework Download files from internet When users want to keep the data on their device, they download the data to it. Creating an Email account and manage messages Email messages are usually encoded in American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) format. The main components of an email message Typically, an email header contains the following information: Recipient email address. This is the email address of the recipient or where the message was sent. ADVANTAGES OF E-MAILS DISADVANTAGES OF E-MAIL Disadvantages of email Creating an Email account(Email address) Steps to create Gmail account Steps to send email in Gmail Steps to send email attachment in Gmail HOMEWORK MODULE: COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Session 04: Apply internet and email skills in accessing medical records Learning Objectives Describe terminologies related to internet Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using internet Search information using internet Download different files from the websites Create an email account and manage messages Send file through Email INTERNET Can you remember a time when you could not tweet, post, email, blog, snap, streaming or like someone online? Many people today have grown up being able to do all of these things. But there was a time when none of this was possible. What makes this possible today is what we call the Internet. What Is the Internet? The Internet is a global wide area network that connects computer systems across the world. What is a network? Refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share resources with each other. The Internet is the most basic example of a Wide area network (WAN), connecting all computers together around the world. Other types of network are: Local area network (LAN) – Network that covers small geographical area like office, building or small college. Metropolitan area network (MAN) – Network that covers large area like City , multiple cities or towns Virtual Private Network (VPN) Creates a secure, encrypted connection between devices, allow them to communicate privately over a public network like the internet. Types of network cont.…… Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) Is a LAN that uses wireless technology (like Wi-Fi) to connect devices. Storage Area Network (SAN) Is a high speed network that connects storage devices (like hard drives) to servers, enabling efficient data transfer and storage. Internet connects millions of computers, webpages, websites, and servers together. Using the internet we can send emails, photos, videos, messages to our loved ones. If your device is connected to the Internet then only you will be able to access all the applications, websites, social media apps, and many more services. Internet nowadays is considered as the fastest medium for sending and receiving information. 1.Hub 2.Switch 3.Router 4.Bridge 5.Gateway 6.Modem 7. Repeater 8.Access Point 9.Server 10.Computer Here are the common network devices: Difference between Internet and Intranet Generally, most people are confused between the internet and the intranet. While there are exist lots of differences to differentiate them. Intranet is the type of internet that is used privately. It is a private network therefore anyone can’t access the intranet. On the intranet, there is a limited number of users and it provides a piece of limited information to its users. How do I connect to the Internet? Once you've set up your computer, you may want to purchase Internet access so you can send and receive email, browse the Web, stream videos, and more. There are three ingredients needed to access the Internet from a laptop or desktop computer: an ISP (Internet service provider) a modem and a Web browser Internet Service Provider The term “internet service provider (ISP)” refers to a company that provides access to the internet to both personal and business customers ISPs make it possible for their customers to surf the web, shop online, conduct business, and connect with family and friends—all for a fee. Examples of ISP in Tanzania are TTCL, Vodacom, Airtel e.t.c Modem Is a computer hardware device that converts data from a digital format into a format suitable for an analog transmission medium such as telephone or radio. What is Web or WWW? The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, is an information system enabling documents and other web resources to be accessed over the Internet. The Web uses HTTP protocol to transmit data and share information. Browsers are used to access Web documents, or Web pages and other web resources such as pictures, videos and audio What is Browser? Is a software application used to access information on the World Wide Web( WWW) Is application software for accessing websites. Browsers are used on a range of devices, including desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. The most used browsers are Google chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Opera mini, Safari, Brave, Netscape Navigator etc. The purpose of a web browser is to fetch content from the World Wide Web or from local storage and display it on a user's device. This process begins when the user inputs a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), such as https://www.mccohas.ac.tz, into the browser. URL (UNIFORM RESOURCES LOCATOR) Is the pathname to display resources available on internet List the parts of URL Protocol name Host part Domain

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Microsoft Excel

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Microsoft Excel Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic Related tasks Advantages of MS EXCEL Disadvantages of MS EXCEL MS General Features Outlines Microsoft Excel Introduction MS Excel General overview There are various ways to navigate through a worksheet: Selecting Cells, Rows, and Columns Editing & Formatting Worksheets Formatting Numbers Inserting Rows and Columns Deleting Rows and Columns Changing Column Widths Changing Row Heights Hiding Rows and Columns Unhiding Rows and Columns Selecting Worksheets Navigating Between Worksheets Renaming Worksheets Inserting Worksheets Deleting Worksheets Moving Worksheets Copying Worksheets MS Excel Views -The Normal View MS Excel Views – Page Layout View MS Excel Views – Page Break Preview View MS Excel Views – Custom Views Allows you to save a set of display and print settings as a custom view, and then apply it. Freezing and Unfreezing Panes Using Templates MICROSOFT EXCEL Related tasks Meaning of MS excel Advantages and Disadvantages of MS EXCEL MS General Features General overview of MS Excel Advantages and Disadvantages of MS EXCEL Advantages of MS EXCEL i. The Best Way to Store Data ii. It perform calculations iii. It has all the tools for data analysis iv. Easy to make data visualizations with charts v. You can print reports easily vi. It has So many free templates to use vii. You can save the document in different formats viii. It Store data with millions of rows Disadvantages of MS EXCEL Difficult to Learn ii. Difficult Formulas application iii. No Quick Autofill features iv. Calculation Errors MS General Features title bar quick access tool bar Menu bar standard toolbar Formatting toolbar active cell columns header rows header document view worksheet MS General Features MS General Features Outlines Introduction MS Excel General overview Moving Around Worksheets Selecting Cells, Rows, and Columns Editing & Formatting Worksheets Formatting Numbers Inserting Rows and Columns Deleting Rows and Columns Changing Row Heights Changing Column Widths Hiding and Unhiding Rows and Columns Selecting Worksheets Navigating Between Worksheets Renaming Worksheets Inserting Worksheets Deleting Worksheets Moving Worksheets Copying Worksheets MS Excel Views The Normal View Page Layout View Page Break Preview View Custom Views Full Screen View Freezing Panes Using Templates Microsoft Excel A spreadsheet: is a table of values arranged in rows and columns; the intersection of a Row & Column is called a Cell. Each cell can have a predefined relationship to the other cells. If you change the value of one cell, the values in the other cells may also be changed according to their relationships with that cell. Introduction Introduction Excel is the MS-Office Application program used for creating spreadsheets. You can use Excel to enter all sorts of data and perform financial, mathematical, or statistical calculations. Excel operates like other MS Office programs and has many of the same functions and shortcuts as MS Word & MS PowerPoint. Excel is more widespread, quick, and easy. MS Excel General overview An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) MS Excel General overview An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. MS Excel General overview An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. Active Worksheet MS Excel General overview An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. Active Worksheet Row headers MS Excel General overview An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. Active Worksheet Row headers Column headers MS Excel General overview An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. The Active Cell: is the selected cell, and has a thicker black border around it. Active Worksheet Row headers Column headers MS Excel General overview The Name Box: displays the active cell address or the name of the selected cell, range, or object. An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. Active Worksheet The Active Cell: is the selected cell, and has a thicker black border around it. Row headers Column headers MS Excel General overview The Name Box: displays the active cell address or the name of the selected cell, range, or object. Formula Bar: displays the data or formula stored in the active cell. An Excel file or a workbook: is composed of a number of worksheets (could be more than 200) Sheet tabs: each tab represents a different worksheet in the workbook. Active Worksheet The Active Cell: is the selected cell, and has a thicker black border around it. Row headers Column headers There are various ways to navigate through a worksheet: Use the mouse and the scroll bars to scroll through the worksheet in any direction. Use the navigational keys on the keyboard: Down arrow or Enter: for moving the active cell one cell down. Up arrow or Shift+ Enter: for moving the active cell one cell up. Right arrow or Tab: for moving the active cell one cell to the right. Left arrow or Shift+Tab: for moving the active cell one cell to the left. Page Down for moving the active cell down one page. Page Up: for moving the active cell up one page. Alt+Page Down: for moving the active cell right one page. Alt+Page Up: for moving the active cell left one page. Ctrl+Home: for moving the active cell to cell A1. Ctrl+End: for moving the active cell to the

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

PowerPoint Presentation Skills

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 PowerPoint Presentation Skills Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic Apply presentation skills in information dissemination Define PowerPoint PowerPoint versions Launch/start PowerPoint in Windows 7 Launch/start PowerPoint in Windows 8, 10, 11 A. Office Button F. Slide Area K. Outline tab Create PowerPoint presentation I. Create a PowerPoint Presentation from blank slides II. Create a PowerPoint Presentation using a template III. Create a PowerPoint Presentation from word outline PowerPoint presentation views Home work Adding new slide to a presentation Delete slide Save your presentation Format text of a PowerPoint presentation Add clipart and picture in presentation Add SmartArt Add charts, diagrams and tables in presentation Add charts, diagrams and tables You can change table styles and also insert and delete rows and columns Add AutoShape, WordArt and Hyperlinks Add WordArt Add Hyperlinks and action button If you use text for the hyperlink, the Text to display field will appear active in the dialog box. PowerPoint Presentation Skills Insert the shape onto the slide. The Actions Setting dialog box will appear. Add footer, slide number and date Add transition to a presentation(2013-2021) Click the Transitions tab. You can modify transition by changing the following properties Add transition to a presentation(2007) Add animation to a presentation Add animation to a presentation (2007) Add animation to a presentation (2013-2021) Select the Animation tab and options in the ribbon appear. Print a PowerPoint presentation (2007) Decide what you want to print: slides, handouts, notes pages, or an outline. Print a PowerPoint presentation (2013-2021) Choose which slides you want to print: Under Settings, click the first rectangle's down arrow and choose an option: Power Point Presentation Apply presentation skills in information dissemination Learning Objectives Define PowerPoint program Launch/start PowerPoint program Create PowerPoint presentation Format text of a PowerPoint presentation Add clip art and pictures in PowerPoint presentation Add charts, diagrams and tables in presentation Add AutoShapes, WordArt and hyperlinks in presentation Create animate slides Add transitions to a presentation Print a PowerPoint presentation Define PowerPoint PowerPoint is a software package designed to create electronic presentations consisting of a series of separate pages or slides. Sometimes abbreviated as PP or PPT This program developed by Microsoft Corporation It is a standard component of the company's Microsoft Office suite software, and is bundled together with Word, Excel and other Office productivity tools. PowerPoint versions PowerPoint 2003 (version 11) (Office 2003) PowerPoint 2007 (version 12) (Office 2007) PowerPoint 2010 (version 14) (Office 2010) PowerPoint 2013 (version 15) (Office 2013) PowerPoint 2016 (version 16) (Office 2016) PowerPoint 2019 (version 16) (Office 2019) PowerPoint 2021 (version 16) (Office 2021) Launch/start PowerPoint in Windows 7 You may use one of the following methods: Click the Start button on the Windows taskbar, then select All Programs, Microsoft Office, PowerPoint. If PowerPoint has recently been used on the computer or has been pinned to the Start Menu, it will appear on the first Start menu list. If so, click the shortcut to start the program. If PowerPoint has been pinned to the taskbar, the PowerPoint icon will be displayed after the Start button on the taskbar. Click the PowerPoint icon to start the program. If available, you may also double-click the PowerPoint shortcut on the Windows Desktop. Launch/start PowerPoint in Windows 8, 10, 11 From the Start screen, click or tap the PowerPoint tile. You will then switch to the Desktop, where PowerPoint runs. From the All Apps screen, click or tap the PowerPoint icon. You will then switch to the Desktop, where PowerPoint runs. On the Desktop, click the PowerPoint Quick Launch icon in the taskbar. 6 PowerPoint window elements (2007) A. Office Button Used to open a new presentation, save the presentation, and access PowerPoint options. B. Quick Access Toolbar Also known as the QAT, this is a customizable toolbar placed by default next to the Office Button, you can add icons for your often used commands to this toolbar C. Title bar This shows the title/name of your presentation and program that you are using D. Close button Used to close the current presentation E. Ribbon The Ribbon has tabs which in turn contain groups of buttons for various options, some groups also contain galleries (for example galleries for Themes and Theme Colors) F. Slide Area Used to display the active slide G. Notes pane Is where you input speaker notes for the current slide. None of this content is visible on the actual slide while presenting, although it is visible in both Notes Page view and Presenter view. H. Zoom button This shows the title/name of your presentation I. View button Used to view presentation in different views (normal view, slide sorter view and slideshow) J. Status bar Shows messages and information about the view, such as the slide number and the current theme template used. K. Outline tab Used to view presentation text and edit it L. Slide tab Used in normal view to navigate from one slide to another PowerPoint window (2013 – 2021) Create PowerPoint presentation To begin working with PowerPoint, you will need either to open an existing presentation or create a new one. They are 3 ways of creating PowerPoint presentations Create a PowerPoint Presentation Using a Template Create a PowerPoint Presentation from Blank Slides Create a PowerPoint Presentation from a Word Outline I. Create a PowerPoint Presentation from blank slides Step 1.From the File menu, select New. (In Microsoft 2007, select the Microsoft Office button and click New.) Step 2. Double Click Blank Presentation or (Select blank presentation and click create button) II. Create a PowerPoint Presentation using a template Step 1. From the File menu, select New. (In Microsoft 2007, select the Microsoft Office button and click New.) Step 2. Double Click one of the templates or (Select template you want and click create button III. Create a PowerPoint Presentation from word outline In Word 2007-2022, you will need to add the “Slide from outline" option to the "Quick Access Toolbar." Click the arrow at

Computer Applications, Optometry Notes, Optometry Semester 1

Computer Memory and Operating Systems

/

OPTOMETRY · SEMESTER 1 Computer Memory and Operating Systems Computer Applications START READING NOTES Contents of This Topic Session 3 Session Objectives Session Objectives [Contd…] Archie, please return My $1000 Computer Memory Visualisation of Computer Memory Dictionary of Bits and Bytes Dictionary of Bits and Bytes contd… Dictionary of Bits and Bytes contd… Introduction To Operating System Introduction To Operating System contd… Definition of OS Functions of Operating System Functions of Operating System [Contd…] Therefore EDP CYCLE Components of the CPU CPU Registers ALU Control Unit (CU) Classification Of Operating Systems Classification Of Operating Systems [Contd…] OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF OS By Functionality Modern ExamplesOF OS Graphical User Interface Systems Components Of GUI System Components Of GUI System [Contd…] Components Of GUI System [Contd…] Session Summary Session 3 Memory and Operating System Session Objectives Explain the concept of computer memory Describe the logical structure of computer memory List the different units for measurement of computer memory Explain the concept of operating system Describe EDP cycle in detail Session Objectives [Contd…] Describe the CPU Architecture. Describe about the CPU registers Name the categories of operating system Explain the features of GUI systems List the features of an OS Archie, please return My $1000 Which money Tom, I can’t remember!!! Need for Memory Computer Memory The capacity of the computer to store data at an instant and its ability to retrieve the same data at another point of time is termed as the computer memory. Memory is used to store both data and information Computer’s memory can be visualized as a contiguous block of rectangular holes. Visualisation of Computer Memory Look at the Shelf Tom, Cell Block of Memory Contents(Data or Information) Dictionary of Bits and Bytes Data given by the user is either decimal numbers or alphabets. So, a step of conversion is necessary before the inputs get accepted by the computer. Hey!!! I can understand only 0s and 1s Dictionary of Bits and Bytes contd… 2 Numbers and alphabets get converted into binary numbers 0 1 0 Bit(Binary Digit) Conversion program Dictionary of Bits and Bytes contd… 8 Bits= 1 Byte 1 TB 1024MB=1GB 1024 KB=1MB 1024 Bytes= 1KB Tera Byte Introduction To Operating System Office Environment I want the Year End financial report !! Yes Sir, Introduction To Operating System contd… User Take these numbers and give me their sum. OS Ok Sir, It will be done Computer Environment Definition of OS OS is a system software which acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware. Functions of Operating System Booting loads the user program into the computer memory The data required by the program is also loaded into the memory. Gives instruction to the computer to display the result on the monitor Functions of Operating System [Contd…] Provides the means for the proper use of the resources like input,output and storage devices. Thus it acts as a manager of various computer resources. Functions of Operating System [Contd…] The operating system software controls the computer hardware. It co-ordinates the flow of data from the storage unit to the processor and vice versa. Therefore An OS is responsible for forwarding the inputs to the processor, get the computation done, and display the result This process is popularly also known as the EDP cycle. EDP CYCLE INPUT DEVICES CPU BUFFER OUTPUT DEVICES PRIMARY MEMORY Components of the CPU CPU Registers CU ALU CPU Registers This unit is for storing any data that comes into the CPU while processing. ALU The Arithmetic and Logic Unit or the ALU takes care of all the mathematical and logical Operations to be done during calculations. Control Unit (CU) This unit controls the whole process of data transfer from one place to the other while computations are going on Classification Of Operating Systems Operating Systems can be categorized into two types. Single User Operating System Example: MS DOS User Processor Classification Of Operating Systems [Contd…] Multi – User Operating System A computer system, when acts as an interface for more than one user, it becomes a multi user environment system Example: Windows -NT Classification Of Operating Systems [Contd…] 4 OS is carrying User1’s Work to the processor I have some work for you Mr. OS The OS puts User2’s work in queue I have some work for you Mr. OS 1 USER1 USER2 3 5 User’s 1 job can be collected back and hence User2’s work is taken up 6 Processor OS 2 OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF OS By Device & Use Case Desktop/Laptop OS: Windows, macOS, Linux (Ubuntu, Fedora), ChromeOS. Mobile OS: Android, iOS (for iPhones/iPads). Server OS: Linux distributions (Ubuntu Server, Red Hat), Windows Server. Embedded OS: For specialized devices like smart TVs, cars, ATMs (often proprietary or stripped-down Linux/RTOS). Real-Time OS (RTOS): Critical for precise timing, used in medical devices, robotics, automotive systems (e.g., VxWorks, QNX). By Functionality Multi-Tasking: Runs multiple applications at once (Windows, macOS, Linux). Multi-User: Allows multiple users to access the system simultaneously (Linux, Windows Server). Time-Sharing: Divides CPU time among users for quick response (modern multitasking OS). Distributed: Manages multiple computers as one system over a network. Network OS (NOS): Manages network resources and communication. Batch OS: Processes jobs in batches without direct user interaction (older systems). Modern ExamplesOF OS Windows: Most popular on desktops, known for broad software compatibility. macOS: Apple's OS for Macs, known for user experience and ecosystem integration. Linux: Open-source, dominant in servers and supercomputers, many variations (distributions). Android: Open-source, highly customizable, powers most smartphones. iOS: Apple's mobile OS, known for security and simplicity on iPhones/iPads. Graphical User Interface Systems OS which use pictures on its interface to abstract functionalities are GUI(Graphical user Interface) OS Hence the user can just point and select appropriate pictures to invoke the required functionality of the OS Example : Windows OS : Win ’95 and Win NT. Components Of GUI System Desktop This is an area on the screen, which displays the various components of a GUI. It is always the starting screen to the OS environment.

banner
Scroll to Top