PST NTA Level 4

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Acid – Base Balances and Common Electrolyte Disorders Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 21 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 21: Acid – Base Balances and Common Electrolyte Disorders Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Acidity ,Alkalinity and pH • Describe Acid Base Balance • Describe Acidosis and Alkalosis • Describe Electrolyte Disorders • Describe Oedema and Ascites Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer • Hand out 17.1:Oedema and Ascites SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |25 minutes |Presentation | Acid, Base and Acid Base Balance | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 |15 minutes |Presentation |Acidosis and Alkalosis | |4 |50 minutes |Presentation |Common Electrolyte Disorders | | | |Small Group | | |5 |15 minutes |Presentation |Oedema and Ascites | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Acid Base Balance (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions: | | | |What is acidity? | |What is alkalinity? | |What is pH? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Acidity is the term which expresses the concentration of Hydrogen ion (H+) of any substance in aqueous solution or the body fluids. • Alkalinity is the term used to express the concentration of Hydroxyl ions (OH-) or the salinity of any substance in aqueous solution or the body fluids. • pH is the scale used to determine the acidity or the alkalinity of the body fluids • The higher the pH the less the acid the substance is and lower the pH the more the acid the substance is. The Body pH • Optimum pH is maintained by keeping the balance between acids and bases produced by the body cells. • There is an inbuilt mechanism which ensures that excess acid or alkali is safely eliminated from the body, better known as the buffer system. • The organs most active in this activity are the lungs and the kidneys. • In order to maintain normal blood pH the cells of the proximal convoluted tubules secret hydrogen ions. In the filtrate hydrogen ions combine with buffers o Bicarbonate forming carbonic acid o Ammonia forming ammonium ions o Hydrogen phosphate forming dihydrogen phosphate • Carbonic acid is converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), carbon dioxide is reabsorbed, maintaining the buffering capacity of the blood. • Hydrogen ions are lost through urine as ammonium salts and hydrogen sulphate. • Other buffer systems include body proteins and phosphates which absorb excess hydrogen ions (H+). • The lungs regulate the blood pH by either increasing or decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide lost (increased or decreased respiration). • Carbon dioxide combine with water to form carbonic acid, which eventually dissociates to bicarbonates and hydrogen ions thus lowering the body pH. • Therefore any condition which retains carbon dioxide in the body will increase the blood acidy and vice versa. • Kidneys regulate blood pH by controlling the amount of hydrogen ion lost through urine. • The normal blood pH ranges from 7. 35 to 7.45. STEP 3: Acidosis and Alkalosis (15 minutes) • The buffer systems described above compensate for most of pH fluctuations, but these reserves are limited and in extreme cases, can become exhausted • When the blood pH falls below 7.35 and all the reserves of alkaline buffers are consumed, the condition of acidosis exists • In the opposite manner when the pH rises above 7.45, the increased alkali uses up all the acid reserve and the state of alkalosis ensues • Acidosis and alkalosis are both injurious to the body, particularly to the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. In practice acidotic states are more common than alkalotic ones, because the body tends to produce more acid than alkali • Acidosis may follow respiratory problems, if lungs are not excreting CO2 as efficiently as normal, or if the body is producing excess acid as in diabetic ketoacidosis or in renal diseases when kidneys are not excreting H+ as normal • Alkalosis may be caused by loss of basic substances as in vomiting or diarrhoea, and rarely through hyperventilation (excess CO2 loss) STEP 4: Electrolyte Disorders (50 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |What are the common electrolyte disorders? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • An electrolyte disorder is an imbalance of certain ionized salts( which include bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphate, potassium , and sodium) in the blood Sodium • Hypernatremia refers to a high sodium concentration in the blood than normal. • Hypernatremia can be caused by inadequate water intake, excessive fluid loss kidneydisease, severe burns, and prolonged vomiting or diarrhea), or sodium retention (caused by excessive sodium intake oraldosteronism ). • Hyponatremia refers to low sodium concentration

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Cardiovascular Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 22 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 22: Structure and Functions of Cardiovascular System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Circulatory and Cardiovascular System • Explain Organization of the Cardiovascular System • Describe Structure of the Heart • Describe Blood Supply to the Heart • Describe Conducting System of the Heart • Describe Foetal Circulation Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer • Handout 22.1: The Human Heart • Handout 22.2: The Surface Anatomy of The Heart • Handout 22.3: Blood Supply of the Heart • Handout 22.4: Conducting System of The Heart • Handout 22.5: Foetal Circulation SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | 15minutes |Presentation, |Definition Circulatory system and | | | |Brainstorm |Cardiovascular System | |3 |15 minutes |Presentation |Organization of the cardiovascular | | | | |system | |4 | 20minutes |Presentation, |Structure of the Human Heart | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |15minutes |Presentation |Blood Supply to the Heart | |6 |20 minutes |Presentation |Conducting System of the Heart | |7 |20 minutes |Presentation |Foetal Circulation | | | |Buzzing | | |8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |9 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition and Organization of Cardiovascular System (15minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is circulatory system? | |What is cardiovascular system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Circulatory system: • An organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), gases (such as oxygen and CO2) , hormones, blood cells, , etc. to and from cells/tissue in the body, and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. o The main role of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, gases, to/from cells/tissues of the body. o Circulatory system is composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. o Humans, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries). Cardiovascular system: • The system that include the heart and the blood vessels. STEP 3: Organisation of the Cardiovascular System (15 minutes) • The main components of the cardiovascular system are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels • Blood circulates within a fast, high capacity system made up of: o The heart, which is the central pump and main motor of the system; o Arteries, which lead away from the heart and carry the blood to the peripheral parts of the body o Veins which return the blood to the heart • The heart can be thought of as a pair of following muscular pumps: o One pump feeding a minor loop (pulmonary circulation), which serves the lungs and oxygenates the blood, o The other pump feeding a major loop (systemic circulation), which serves the rest of the body o With limited exceptions, each loop is a closed system of tubes, so that blood by itself does not usually leave the circulation • From the centre to the periphery, the vascular tree shows three main modifications. • The arteries increase in number by repeated bifurcation and by sending out side branches, in both the systemic and the pulmonary circulation. o The aorta, which carries blood from the heart to the systemic circulation, gives rise to about 4 × 106 arterioles and four times as many capillaries. o The arteries also decrease in diameter, although not to the same extent as their increase in number, so that a hypothetical cross-section of all the vessels at a given distance will increase in total area with increasing distance from the heart. o The blood flow is faster near the heart than at the periphery. • Venules are vessels which return blood from the periphery, converge on each other forming a progressively smaller number of veins of increasingly larger size. • As with arteries, the hypothetical total cross-sectional area of all veins at a given level reduces nearer to the heart. • Eventually, only the two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, open into the heart from the systemic circulation. • A similar pattern is found in the pulmonary circulation, but here the vascular loop is shorter and has fewer branch points, and consequently, the number of vessels is smaller than in the systemic circulation. STEP 4: Structure of the Human Heart (20 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is the heart? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ • It is about 10 cm long and it is about the size of the owner’s fist • It weighs about 300g Location of the Heart • Lies in the

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Cardiovascular Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 23 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 23: Common Disorders of the Cardiovascular System Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Common Terms in Cardiovascular Disorders • List Common Cardiovascular Disorders • Explain Common Cardiovascular Disorders • Identify Common Risk Factors Associated with Cardiovascular Disorders Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation, |Definition of the Cardiovascular | | | |Brainstorming |disorders | |3 |25 minutes |Presentation, |Common Disorders of Cardiovascular | | | |Brainstorming |System | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Hypertension and its Risk Factors | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of the Cardiovascular Disorder (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is the cardiovascular disorder? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Cardiovascular disorders are the disorders of the heart and blood vessels o Vascular disease is responsible for more morbidity and mortality than any other category of human disease o Cardiovascular disorders are due to ,such as age, genetics, and lifestyle STEP 3: Common Disorders of Cardiovascular System (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the common disorders of cardiovascular system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | The common disorders of the cardiovascular system include: • Hypertension • Hypotension • Cardiac failure • Ischaemic heart diseases • Angina pectoris • Myocardial infarction • Arrhythmias • Shock • Varicose veins • Aaneurisms • Arteriosclerosis • Atherosclerosis Arteriosclerosis • Arteriosclerosis literally means hardening of the arteries • Is the term used to describe degenerative changes in small arteries, commonly occurring in older individuals and diabetics • Elasticity is lost, and the walls become thick and hard • The lumen gradually narrows and may become obscured • This leads to diffuse ischemia and death in various tissues such as those of the: heart, kidneys, or brain Atherosclerosis • It is the condition in which an artery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty • materials such as cholesterol( accumulation of lipids in blood vessels causing occlusion) • Is differentiated by the presence of atheromas (plaques consisting of lipids, cells, and cell debris, often with attached thrombi, which form inside the walls of large arteries) • Atheromas form primarily in large arteries such as the aorta and the coronary arteries Angina pectoris • It is an episodic, reversible oxygen insufficiency • This condition is the most common form of IHD • Angina pectoris is applied to varying forms of transient chest pain that are attributable to insufficient myocardial oxygen • Atherosclerotic lesions that produce a narrowing of the coronary arteries are the major cause of angina • However, tachycardia(increased heart rate), anaemia, hyperthyroidism, and hypotension can cause an oxygen imbalance Myocardial Infarction • Myocardial infarction (MI) is an area of dead cardiac muscle tissue, with or without haemorrhage • Myocardial infarction is produced by an obstruction of the coronary artery, which results in a lack of oxygen to the tissue • For those who survive an myocardial infarction, there is a notably greater risk of a second myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, or a stroke occurring within a short time Cardiac Arrhythmias (dysrhythmias) • They are deviations from the normal cardiac rate or rhythm • They may result from damage to the heart’s conduction system or from systemic causes such as electrolyte abnormalities, fever, hypoxia, stress, and drug toxicity Congestive heart failure (CHF) • Is one of the most common cardiovascular disorders • This condition occurs when the heart is not able to pump enough blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands. • Heart failure may be caused by any disorder that affects the heart’s ability to receive or eject blood Aneurysm • It is a localized abnormal dilation of a blood vessel or the heart • When an aneurysm involves all three layers of the arterial wall (intima, media, and adventitia) or the attenuated wall of the heart, it is called a true aneurysm o Atherosclerotic, syphilitic, and congenital aneurysms, and ventricular aneurysms that follow transmural myocardial infarctions, are examples of this type STEP 4: Hypertension and its Risk Factors (10 minutes) Hypertension is elevation of blood pressure (B.P) usually systolic blood pressure is ≥ 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure is ≥ 90mmHg measured on three separate occasions. There are three classifications of hypertension: Primary or essential hypertension • It is idiopathic (occurring spontaneously from an unknown cause) • Essential hypertension develops when the blood pressure is consistently above 140/90 mmHg Secondary hypertension • It results from renal (e.g., nephrosclerosis) or endocrine (e.g., hyperaldosteronism) disease, or pheochromocytoma, a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla • In this type of hypertension, the underlying problem must be resolved Malignant hypertension • It is an

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Respiratory Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 24 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 24: Structure and Functions of the Respiratory System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Respiratory System • Explain the Structure and Function of the Upper Respiratory Tract • Explain the Structure and Function of the Lower Respiratory Tract Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |05 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Respiratory System | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 | |Presentation |Structure and Functions of the Upper| | |60 minutes |Small Group |Respiratory System | | | |Discussion | | |4 | |Presentation |Structure and Functions of the Lower| | |40 minutes |Small Group |Respiratory System | | | |Discussion | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Respiratory System (5 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body • Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body • The respiratory system may be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. STEP 3: Structure and Functions of the Upper Respiratory System (60 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • The organs of the upper respiratory system are located outside of the thorax and consists of the nose, pharynx and larynx • Nose o Is made up of bone and cartilage covered with skin, and lined with hairs within the nostrils. The hairs help to block dusts entry o The two nasal cavities are within the skull, separated by the nasal septum, which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer o The nasal mucosa is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which produce mucus o The mucus produced help to trap bacteria and particles from the air o There are three shelve like bones called conchae project from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity o In the upper nasal cavities are the olfactory receptors, which detect vaporized chemicals that have been inhaled. o Paranasal sinuses: ▪ Air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones ▪ Are lined with ciliated epithelium, and the mucus produced drains into the nasal cavities. ▪ The functions of the paranasal sinuses are to lighten the skull and provide more vibrating air for the voice. • Functions of the nose o Respiration (breathing) ▪ The nose humidify, warm, filter and clean the air o Reception and elimination of secretions from the nasal mucosa, paranasal sinuses, and nasolacrimal ducts o Olfaction (smelling) – is the organ of sense of smell o It aids speech- this is enhanced by the presence of paranasal sinuses • Pharynx o It is a muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and anterior to the cervical vertebrae. o It is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. o Nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity. ▪ It is continuous with lining of the nose and consists of ciliated columnar epithelium and the intermediate layer is fibrous tissue. o Oropharynx; lies behind the oral cavity. ▪ It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with lining of the mouth and oesophagus. o Laryngopharynx also known as the hypopharynx, this is also lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium. • Functions of the pharynx o Passageway for air and food o Warming and humidifying air o Protection o Taste o Facilitates Hearing o The pharynx is also important in vocalization and Speech • Larynx o The larynx houses the vocal folds, and is situated just below the pharynx between the root of the tongue and upper end of the trachea. o The larynx consists of cartilages attaches to each other by ligaments and membranes. o The framework of the larynx is formed by nine cartilages (e.g. thyroid, epiglottis) connected to one another by muscles, ligaments and membranes. o The epiglottisis the uppermost cartilage. During swallowing, the larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis closes over the top to prevent entry of saliva and food to the larynx • Functions of the larynx o Speaking (speech) ▪ Sound production is primarily done by the focal folds o Respiration (is the air passageway between pharynx and the trachea) o Swallowing ▪ The epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into the larynx STEP 4: Structure and Functions of the Lower Respiratory System (40 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 25 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 25: Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • Session 20; Structure and functions of respiratory tract. Students Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Common Respiratory System Disorder • List Common Respiratory System Disorders • Explain the Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract • Explain the Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead projector and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation |Common Respiratory Disorders | | | |Buzzing | | |3 | |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Upper | | |10 minutes |Brainstorming |Respiratory System | |4 |15 minutes |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Lower | | | |Buzzing |Respiratory System | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Disorders of the Respiratory System (10 minutes) |Activity: buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the common disorders of respiratory systems? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Respiratory disorders: • A medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, • It includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing • Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and lung cancer • Upper respiratory system disorders o Pharyngitis o Epiglottitis o Rheumatic fever o Diphtheria • Lower respiratory system disorders o Bronchiolitis o Pneumonia o Pertussis o Tuberculosis • Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) o Asthma o Cystic fibrosis o Lung cancer • Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) o Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) o Emphysema o Chronic asthma • Vascular disorders which are: o Pulmonary oedema o Pulmonary emboli STEP 3: Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory System (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world • Pharyngitis o It is an inflammation of the throat or pharynx. o It is often referred to as a sore throat. o Acute pharyngitis can result in very large tonsils which cause trouble swallowing and breathing. o Some cases are accompanied by a cough or fever. o Most acute cases are caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, fungal infections, or irritants such as pollutants or chemical substances. • Epiglottitis o A very rapidly progressive infection causing inflammation of the epiglottis and tissues around the epiglottis o The infection is usually caused by bacteria and is contracted through the respiratory tract • Rheumatic fever o An inflammatory disease that may develop two to three weeks after bacterial(streptococcal) infection o It is common in children • Diphtheria o It is an acute bacterial disease that usually affects the tonsils, throat, nose or skin. STEP 4: Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory System (15 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Bronchiolitis o Inflammation of the bronchioles due to infections especially viral o More prominent in individuals with asthma history and cigarette smoking • Pneumonia o Inflammation of lung with accompanying fluid build up o Much of pneumonia seen clinically is caused by bacteria (Streptococcus Pneumonia). o Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is most common to immune compromised patients • Pertussis o Pertussis, commonly known as "whooping cough," is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by bacteria • Tuberculosis o Is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis o It can be inactive or active o It is most prominent to HIV/AIDS patients and other immune compromised patients. o Is more characterised by chronic cough and night sweats • Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) o Cystic fibrosis, lung cancer and asthma belongs to OPD o Both may cause obstruction and inflammation o Asthma ▪ Periodic episodes of reversible bronchial obstruction in people with hypersensitive airways ▪ Histamine and leukotriene released from mast cells due to allergens like dust and cigarette smoke are the main cause • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) o Is the irreversible progressive obstruction of air flow in lungs o Includes: o Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) ▪ Chronic inflammation of mucus membrane ▪ This results in a chronic, deep, productive cough ▪ It

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Male Reproductive System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 26 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 26: Structure and Functions of the Male Reproductive System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Male Reproductive System • Explain the Composition of Male Reproductive System • Describe Structure and Functions of the Male Reproductive System • Explain the Process of Spermatogenesis Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer • Handout 26.1:The sperm cell and semen SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition and composition of Male | | |10minutes |Brain storming|Reproductive System | |3 | 55minutes |Presentation |Structure and Functions of the Male | | | |Small Group |Reproductive System | | | |Discussion | | |4 |40 minutes |Presentation |Spermatogenesis | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Composition of Male Reproductive System (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is the composition of male reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Male reproductive system: Is the genital system, reproductive system organs and tissues involved in the production and maturation of gametes and in their union and subsequent development as offspring. • The male reproductive system consists of the testes and a series of ducts and glands. o Sperm are produced in the testes by a process of spermatogenesis and are transported through the reproductive ducts: epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra o The reproductive glands produce secretions that become part of semen, the fluid that is ejaculated from the urethra. o These glands are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. STEP 3: Structures and Functions of Male Reproductive System (55 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the structures and functions of the male reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Structures of the male reproductive system • Testes • Epididymis • Dactus deferens (vas deferens) • Ejaculatory ducts • Seminal vesicles • Prostate gland • Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands • Urethra-penis Functions of the male reproductive system • Testes o The testes are located in the scrotum, a sac of skin between the upper thighs. o Internally is divided in to lobes o Each lobe contains several seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis takes place. o Among the produced spermatogonia are sertoli cells which produce inhibin hormone when stimulated by testosterone o Between the loops of the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells which produce testosterone when stimulated by luteinizing hormone from anterior pituitary gland o Testosterone is responsible for maturation of sperm and secondary male characteristics. • Epididymis o It is a tube about 6m long that is coiled in the posterior surface of each testis. o Within it the sperm complete the maturation and their flagella become functional. o Smooth muscle of the wall of epididymis propels the sperm to dactus deferens • Dactus deferens (vas deferens) o Extends from the epididymis in the scrotum on its own side into the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal. o Spermatic cord is a connective tissue sheath that contains the ductus deferens, testicular blood vessels, and nerves o Inguinal canal is a natural weak spot where most of hernia is formed in men. o The smooth muscle layer of the ductus deferens contracts in waves of peristalsis as part of ejaculation • Ejaculatory ducts o Each of the two ejaculatory ducts receives sperm from the ductus deferens and the secretion of the seminal vesicle on its own side. o Both ejaculatory ducts empty into the single urethra • Seminal vesicles o The paired seminal vesicles are posterior to the urinary bladder o Their secretion contains fructose to provide an energy source for sperm and is alkaline to enhance sperm motility. o The duct of each seminal vesicle joins the ductus deferens on that side to form the ejaculatory duct. • Prostate gland o A muscular gland just below the urinary bladder o It surrounds the first inch of the urethra as it emerges from the bladder o The glandular tissue of the prostate secretes an alkaline fluid that helps maintain sperm motility. o The smooth muscle of the prostate gland contracts during ejaculation to contribute to the expulsion of semen from the urethra • Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands o They are located below the prostate gland and empties to the urethra o Their alkaline secretion coats the interior of the urethra just before ejaculation, which neutralizes any acidic urine that might be present. • Urethra-penis o The urethra is the last of the ducts through which semen travels, and its longest portion is enclosed within the penis. o The penis is an external genital organ; its distal end is called the glans penis and is covered with a fold

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 27 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 27: Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • Session 22; Structures and functions of the male reproductive system. Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Male Reproductive Disorder • List Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System. • Explain the Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Brain storming| Common Disorders of the Male | | |20 minutes |Presentation |Reproductive System | |3 |25minutes |Presentation. |Explanation of the Common Disorders | | | | |of the Male Reproductive System | |4 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System (20 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the common disorders of the male reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Male reproductive system disorders • Its infections that affect the reproductive tract, which is part of the Reproductive System o For males these infections are at the penis, testicles, urethra or the vas deferens. o The course of these disorders could be bacterium, virus, fungus or other organism. o Some infections are easily treatable and can be cured, some are more difficult, and some are non-curable such as AIDS and herpes Common disorders of the male reproductive system • Testicular cancer • Prostate disorders o Prostate cancer • Erectile Dysfunction • Sexually transmitted diseases STEP 3: Explanation of the Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System (25 minutes) • Testicular cancer o It is the most common cancer in males between the ages of 20 and 35. o An early sign of testicular cancer is a mass in the testis • Prostate disorders o Because the prostate surrounds part of the urethra, any infection, enlargement, or tumour can obstruct the flow of urine. o Acute and chronic infections of the prostate are common in postpubescent males, often in association with inflammation of the urethra. o Symptoms may include fever, chills, urinary frequency, frequent urination at night, difficulty in urinating, burning or painful urination, low back pain, joint and muscle pain, blood in the urine, or painful ejaculation o Prostate cancer ▪ Is the leading cause of death from cancer in men ▪ Treatment for prostate cancer may involve surgery, cryotherapy, radiation, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy • Erectile Dysfunction o Erectile dysfunction (ED), previously termed impotence, is the consistent inability of an adult male to ejaculate or to attain or hold an erection long enough for sexual intercourse. o Many cases of impotence are caused by insufficient release of nitric oxide (NO), which relaxes the smooth muscle of the penile arterioles and erectile tissue. o Other causes of erectile dysfunction include ▪ Diabetes mellitus, physical abnormalities of the penis, ▪ Systemic disorders such as syphilis, ▪ Vascular disturbances (arterial or venous obstructions), ▪ Neurological disorders ▪ Surgery ▪ Testosterone deficiency ▪ Drugs (alcohol, antidepressants, antihistamines, antihypertensive, narcotics, nicotine, and tranquilizers). ▪ Psychological factors such as anxiety or depression, fear of causing pregnancy, fear of sexually transmitted diseases • Sexually transmitted diseases o The sexually transmitted diseases of the male reproductive system will be discussed with the sexually transmitted diseases of the female reproductive system STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes) • The common disorders of the male reproductive system are testicular cancer, prostate disorders, erectile dysfunction and sexually transmitted diseases • Erectile dysfunction is a big problem to the society and is caused by a number of factors. STEP 6: Evaluation (5 minutes) • Define male reproductive disorder • List common disorders of the male reproductive system. • What is the early sign of testicular cancer? • What are the causes of erectile dysfunction? References Kumar, A. et al (2004). Robbins Basic Pathology. WB: Saunders. Spector, T.D. & Axford, J. S. (1999). Introduction to General Pathology. Edinburgh: Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D.& Tate, P. (2003). Anatomy and Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Shier, A., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2004). Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Standring, S. (2008). Grays’s Anatomy The anatomical basis of clinical practice. United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone Elservier. Thibodeau, G. A., & Patton, K. T. (1999). Anatomy & Physiology. Saint Louis: Mosby, Von Hoffman Press, Inc. Tortora, G.J & Derrickson, B (2009). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition, USA, John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA Walter, J.B, & Talbot, I. C. (1996). General Pathology. New York: Churchill Livingstone Waugh, A. & Grant, A. (2006). Ross and Willson Anatomy and physiology in Health and illness. United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone Elservier ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Human Anatomy and Physiology topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Female Reproductive System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 28 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 28: Structure and Functions of the Female Reproductive System Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Female Reproductive System • List Structures of Female Reproductive System • Describe Structure and Functions of the Female Reproductive System • Explain the Process of Oogenesis Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer • Handout 28.1 Menstrual cycle SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |15 minutes |Presentation |Definition and Components to Female| | | |Brainstorming |Reproductive System | |3 | |Presentation |Structures and Functions of the | | |45 minutes |Small Group |Female Reproductive System | | | |Discussion | | |4 |35 minutes |Presentation |Oogenesis | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Components of the Female Reproductive System(15 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions: | | | |What is female reproductive system? | |What is fertilization? | |What are the components of the female reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | The female reproductive system: • Made up of the internal and external sex organs that function inhuman reproduction. • The female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a foetus to full term Fertilization • Is the fusion /unionofmaleandfemalegametes,duringsexualreproduction,toformazygote • The female reproductive system consists of the: o Paired ovaries o Fallopian tubes o Single uterus o Vagina o External genital structures • Egg cells (ova) are produced in the ovaries and travel through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. • The uterus is the site for the growth of the embryo-foetus STEP 3: Structures and Functions of the Female Reproductive System (45 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the structures and functions of the female reproductive | |system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Ovaries o The ovaries are a pair of oval structures on either side of the uterus in the pelvic cavity o Within an ovary are several hundred thousand primary follicles, which are present at birth. o Each primary ovarian follicle contains an oocyte, a potential ovum or egg cell. Surrounding the oocyte are the follicle cells, which secrete estrogen. o Graafian follicle (matured follicle) and luteinizing hormone cause ovulation o Ruptured follicle become corpus luteum and begins to secrete progesterone and oestrogen • Fallopian tubes o There are two fallopian tubes(oviducts) o The lateral end of a fallopian tube encloses an ovary, and the medial end opens into the uterus. o The smooth muscles along it propels the ovum towards the uterus o The ovum is fertilized in the fallopian tube and swept to the uterus • Uterus o The uterus is shaped like an upside-down pear, superior to the urinary bladder and between the two ovaries in the pelvic cavity o During pregnancy the uterus increases greatly in size, contains the placenta to nourish the embryo-foetus, and expels the baby at the end of gestation. o It is divided in to fundus (upper part), body (central part) and cervix (lower part) o The myometrium is the smooth muscle layer during pregnancy these cells increase in size to accommodate the growing foetus and contract for labor and delivery at the end of pregnancy. o The lining of the uterus is the endometrium, forms the maternal portion of the placenta during pregnancy • Vagina o The vagina is a muscular tube that extends from the cervix to the vaginal orifice o The vaginal opening is usually partially covered by a thin membrane called the hymen which ruptures after sexual intercourse o The functions of the vagina are to receive sperm from the penis during sexual intercourse, to provide the exit for menstrual blood flow, and to become the birth canal at the end of pregnancy. [pic] Source: Scanlon,V.C. & Sandors,T (2007). • External genitals (Vulva) The external female genitalia includes: o Clitoris ▪ Is a small mass of erectile tissue anterior to the urethral orifice. The only function of the clitoris is sensory. It responds to sexual stimulation. o Labia majora and minora ▪ Are paired folds of skin which covers the urethra and vagina openings and prevent drying of their mucous membranes o Bartholin’s glands ▪ They secrete lubricant which keep the vagina moist during sexual intercourse [pic]4IN Source:Scanlon,V.C. & Sandors,T (2007). Figure 28:2. Female external genitals VITROFERTILIZATION STEP 4: Oogenesis (35 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 25 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |How an egg cell

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 29 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 29: Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • Session 24; Structures and functions of the female reproductive system. Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Female Reproductive Disorder • List Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System. • Explain the Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer. SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10minutes |Presentation |Definition and types of female | | | |buzzing |reproductive disorder | |3 | |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Female | | |35 minutes |Small Group |Reproductive System | | | |Discussion | | |4 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing Step 2: Definition and Types of Female Reproductive Disorder (10 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the female reproductive disorder | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Female reproductive disorder • Its infections that affect the reproductive tract which is part of the Reproductive System. o Reproductive tract infections can be in either the upper reproductive tract (fallopian tubes, ovary and uterus), and the lower reproductive tract (vagina, cervix and vulva) List common disorders of the female reproductive system. • Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) • Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) • Endometriosis • Breast cancer • Ovarian cancer • Cervical cancer • Vulvovaginal Candidiasis • Sexually Transmitted Diseases o Gonorrhoea o Syphilis o Genital Herpes o Genital Warts STEP 3: Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System (45 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are common disorders of the female reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) o It is a cyclical disorder of severe physical and emotional distress. o It may be presented by oedema, weight gain, breast swelling and tenderness, abdominal distension, backache, joint pain, constipation, skin eruptions, fatigue and lethargy, greater need for sleep, depression or anxiety o Getting regular exercise, avoiding caffeine, salt, and alcohol may bring relief • Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) o It is a more severe syndrome in which PMS-like signs and symptoms do not resolve after the onset of menstruation. • Endometriosis o Is characterized by the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. o It can cause inflammation, pain, scarring, and infertility. o Symptoms include premenstrual pain or unusually severe menstrual pain. • Breast cancer o Generally is not painful until it becomes quite advanced o Any lump, no matter how small, should be reported to a physician at once o Among the factors that increase the risk of developing breast cancer is a family history of breast cancer, null parity (never having borne a child) or having a first child after age 35, previous cancer in one breast, exposure to ionizing radiation, such as x-rays, excessive alcohol intake and cigarette smoking. • Ovarian cancer o Risk factors associated with ovarian cancer include age (over age 50), race (whites are at highest risk), family history of ovarian cancer, more than 40 years of active ovulation, null parity, a high-fat and low-fibre • Cervical cancer o Starts with cervical dysplasia; a change in the shape, growth, and number of cervical cells. o The cells may either return to normal or progress to cancer. o Increased risk is associated with having a large number of sexual partners, having first intercourse at a young age and smoking cigarettes. • Vulvovaginal Candidiasis o Candida albicans commonly grows on mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. o It is the most common form of vaginitis inflammation of the vagina. o Candidiasis is characterized by severe itching, a thick, yellow and cheesy discharge, a yeasty odour and pain. • Sexually Transmitted Diseases o A sexually transmitted disease (STD) is one that is spread by sexual contact. o It is in both male and female reproductive systems o Chlamydia ▪ Is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis ▪ In males, urethritis is the principal result, causing a clear discharge, burning on urination, frequent urination, and painful urination. ▪ In 70% of females with chlamydia, symptoms are absent, but chlamydia is the leading cause of pelvic inflammatory disease. o Gonorrhoea ▪ Gonorrhoea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. ▪ Males usually experience urethritis with profuse pus drainage and painful urination ▪ In females, infection typically occurs in the vagina, often with a discharge of pus ▪ Up to 50% of infected females may harbour the disease without any symptoms o Syphilis ▪ Syphilis, caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, is transmitted through sexual contact or exchange of blood, or through the placenta to a foetus. ▪ In

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Urinary System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 30 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 30: Structure and Functions of the Urinary System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Urinary System • List Structures of Urinary System • Describe the Structures of the Urinary System • Explain the Functions of the Structures of the Urinary System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition and Type of Structures of| | |25 minutes |Brainstorming |the Urinary System | |3 | |Presentation |Structures of the Urinary System | | |50minutes | | | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation |Functions of the Structures of the | | | |Buzzing |Urinary System | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of the Urinary System (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is urinary system? | |What are the structures of urinary system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Urinary system: is the system which regulates the content of blood plasma to maintain the homeostasis of the internal fluid environment within normal limits (control the composition of blood and blood volume) • It removes waste products from the blood, of which many of them are toxic • The principal organ of the urinary system is the kidney • The accessory organs include the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra • The following are the structures of the urinary system: o Kidneys o Ureters o Urinary bladder, o Urethra STEP 3: Structures of the Urinary System (50 minutes) The kidneys • Are bean shaped organs with a medial indentation, • located in the upper abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum • Are embedded in adipose tissue that acts as a cushion and is in turn covered by a fibrous connective tissue membrane called the renal fascia, which helps hold the kidneys in place • The renal artery enters the kidney, and the renal vein and ureter emerge • The outer tissue layer is called the renal cortex, which is made of renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules • The inner tissue layer is the renal medulla, which is made of loops of henle and collecting tubules • The renal medulla consists of wedge-shaped pieces called renal pyramids. • The tip of each pyramid is its apex or papilla • Renal pelvis is a cavity formed by the expansion of the ureter within the kidney at the hilus • Funnel shaped extensions of the renal pelvis; called calyces enclose the papillae of the renal pyramids • Urine flows from the renal pyramids into the calyces, then to the renal pelvis and out into the ureter Nephron o Nephron is the structure and function unit of the kidney o It is well associated with the blood vessels and the urine is formed there o Each nephron has two major portions: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule Renal corpuscle ▪ Consists of a glomerulus surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule. ▪ The glomerulus is a capillary network that arises from an afferent arteriole and empties into an efferent arteriole. ▪ The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent arteriole, which helps maintain a fairly high blood pressure in the glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule ▪ Is the expanded end of a renal tubule and encloses the glomerulus. ▪ The fluid that is formed from the blood in the glomerulus will eventually become the urine The renal tubule o Continues from Bowman’s capsule and consists of the proximal convoluted tubule (in the renal cortex), loop of Henle (in the renal medulla), and distal convoluted tubule (in the renal cortex). o The distal convoluted tubules from several nephrons empty into a collecting tubule. o Several collecting tubules then unite to form a papillary duct that empties urine into a calyx of the renal pelvis. [pic] Source: F.A.Davis (2007). Figure 30.1: Structure of the kidney o Blood flow and urine formation o Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery and flows downstream to afferent arterioles and emerge through efferent arterioles, flowing to upper stream to renal veins, and finally to inferior vena cava o The formation of urine involves three major processes ▪ The first is glomerular filtration, which take place in the renal corpuscles and ▪ The second and third are tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion, which take place in the renal tubules. o Accessory organs of the urinary system o The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are responsible for the periodic elimination of urine and do not change the composition or amount of urine. o Ureter ▪ Each ureter extends from the hilus of a kidney to the lower, posterior side of the urinary bladder ▪ The smooth muscle in the wall of the ureter contracts in peristaltic waves to propel urine toward the urinary bladder. ▪ As the bladder fills, it expands and compresses the lower ends of the ureters to prevent backflow of urine. o Urinary bladder ▪ It is a muscular sac