Pharmaceutical Sciences Notes

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Basic Concept of Research Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 5 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 5: Basic Concept of Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define research • Outline the importance of research in pharmaceutical services • Explain the application of research concepts in pharmaceutical services Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1. 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 2. 20 minutes Presentation Brainstorming Definition of Research Presentation Importance of Research in Pharmaceutical 3. 35 minutes Buzzing Services Presentation 4. Application of Research Concepts in 50 minutes Small group discussion Pharmaceutical Services 5. 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6. 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 32 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definitions of Research (20 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • What is research? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Research: o A careful and systematic process of inquiry to find answers to problem of interest. o It is a systematic process of collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a research question or solve a problem o Includes use of facts, use of theories, data analysis, sampling, doing an experiment o To do research is to investigate the problem systematically and thoroughly to Solve problem of interest. o Human instinct to inquiry, to know, to know more, to explore, to find out, to explain, to overcome a problem o An on-going process o How we live today is partly due to research ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 33 STEP 3: Importance of research in Pharmaceutical Services (35 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What is the importance of research in pharmaceutical services? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Pharmaceutical personnel in all settings can engage more fully in research in order to o Improve patient outcomes and further develop the profession. o Inform workforce development, education, practice and commissioning decisions. o Clinical advances resulting from research help improve the care of patients o Research findings assist in developing new roles and practice models for clinical pharmacists. o Its aim is to support evidence-based policy and practice decisions where pharmacists are employed or medicines are prescribed or used STEP 4: Application of Research Concepts in Pharmaceutical Services (50 minutes) Activity: Small group discussion (30 minutes) DIVIDE students in small manageable groups of 5-6 students ASK them to discuss on how they can apply research in pharmaceutical services (15 minutes) ALLOW one group to present and let other groups to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Application of Research Concepts in Pharmaceutical services o Focuses on examining how and why people access pharmacy services, how much care costs, and what happens to patients as a result of this care. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 34 o Health policy and governance o Quality assurance and safety o Medicine access and rational use o Quality, safety & standards (e.g. vaccines and biological) o Strengthening the services, they provide through:  Building the evidence base for developing and commissioning new services  Improving patient care  Contributing to the knowledge base within health service research more widely  Gaining both professionally and personally in the process STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Research is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data in order to answer a certain question or solve a problem • Areas in pharmaceutical services that need research: may include health policy and governance, quality assurance and safety, rational use of drugs STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What is research? • What is the application of research in pharmaceutical services? ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 35 References Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., Williams, T.A., Freeman, J. & Shoesmith, E. (2007). Basic Statistics and epidemiology (2001). A practical guide, Radcliffe Medical Press, United Kingdom Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology, World Health Organization, Geneva Kazaura, M. R., Makwaya, C. K., Masanja, C. M. and Mpembeni, R.C. (1997). Lecture notesin Biostatistics, manual of biostatistics: Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences, Dar es Salaam Polit, D. F and Beck, C. T (2004) Nursing Research – Principles and Methods, (7th Ed): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia Rao, J. S., & Richard, J. (2002). An introduction to biostatistics-a manual for students in helthsciences (3rd. Ed): New Delhi, India: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd Rosner B (2010): Fundamental of Biostatistics (7th Ed.): Boston, USA: Cengage Learning ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 36 ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Operational Research topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Classification of Research Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 6 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 6: Classification of Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Identify classes of research  Describe study designs for classes of research identified  Explain the uses and limitations of each study design  Identify the most appropriate study design for the research proposal you are developing Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Classes of research 2 15 minutes Brainstorming Presentation Study designs 3 40 minutes Buzzing 3 30 minutes Presentation Uses and Limitations of each Study design Buzzing 4 20 minutes Presentation Appropriate Study design for the Research Proposal 5 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 37 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1 Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes): READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Study Types Most Used in Research (35 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions: • What are the research classifications most used in research? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below Research can be classified into several categories according to the nature and purpose of the study and other attributes. • Types of Research Methods According to the Purpose of the Study o Applied research which is also referred to as an action research, o Basic research also called fundamental or pure research. • Types of Research Methods According to Nature of the Study Descriptive, analytical and Experimental studies or interventional studies o Descriptive research usually involves surveys and studies that aim to identify the facts. o In other words, it deals with the ―description of the state of affairs as it is at present‖, and there is no control over variables in descriptive research. o Observational or Analytical research uses facts or information already available and analyze these in order to make a critical evaluation of the material‖. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 38 o Experimental or interventional studies are ones where researchers introduce an intervention and study the effects. Experimental studies are usually randomized, meaning the subjects are grouped by chance. Randomized controlled trial (RCT): Eligible people are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups. • Types of Research according to Research Design o Two groups; Exploratory and Conclusive. o Exploratory studies only aim to explore the research area and they do not attempt to offer final and conclusive answers to research questions. o Conclusive studies, on the contrary, aim to provide final and conclusive answers to research questions. o Quantitative or qualitative STEP 3: Uses and Limitations of Each Study Type (40 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to, select one study type then pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What are the uses of the selected study type? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 39 • Basic (fundamental/pure) research Uses o Basic research aims to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena. o Applied research, in turn, uses scientific theories to develop technology or techniques to intervene and alter natural or other phenomena. o Though often driven by curiosity, basic research fuels applied science's innovations. Limitations o Does not usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical level. o Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in specific research area • Applied (operational) research Uses o Operations research is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions. o It uses scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a practical or useful result o Uses knowledge and skills in creative ways to solve complex problems and have an impact on critical decisions Limitations o Costly: Operation Research (OR) is very costly. o Not realistic: Operation Research experts make very complex models for solving problems. These models may not be realistic o Complex: Operation Research is a complex concept • Quantitative research Uses o Provides statistical, mathematical, or numerical results o Tends to analyze phenomena in terms of trends and frequencies o Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. o It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. o Quantitative research is inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a theory, measured with numbers, and analyzed using statistical techniques. o The goal of quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive generalizations of a theory hold true. Limitations o Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher o More easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies. o Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 40 • Qualitative research Uses o Can provide full picture of answers and reasons behind them(ethnographic) o Can be used to inform answers to social issues o Find ways to improve qualitative things like customers satisfaction, health professional's opinions o It aims to develop concepts that aid

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Procedures for Conducting Operational Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 7 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 7: Procedures for Conducting Operational Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Outline the major characteristics of research • Identify essential guidelines in conducting operational research • Describe procedural steps for conducting operational research Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1. 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Major characteristics of research 2. 15 minutes Brain storming Presentation Essential guidelines for conducting operational 3. 30 minutes Buzzing research 60 minutes Presentation Procedural steps for conducting operational research 4. Group discussion 5. 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6. 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 48 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Major Characteristics of Research (15 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) ASK students to brainstorm on the following question for 3minutes  What are the major characteristics of operational research? ALLOW few to respond WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Operational research encompasses a wide range of problem-solving techniques and methods applied in the pursuit of improved decision-making and efficiency. Therefore, it must have certain characteristics as follows: • It demands a clear statement of the problem. • It requires clear objectives and a plan (it is not aimlessly looking for something in the hopes that you will come across a solution). • It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings. • New data should be systematically collected and analyzed to answer the original research objectives. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 49 STEP 3: Essential Guidelines for Conducting Operational Research (30 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What are the essential guidelines for conducting operational research? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their responses on the flip chart/whiteboard CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Operational research is undertaken primarily to provide information to support decision- making that can improve the functioning of the health system. Some essential guidelines for success include: • It should focus on priority problems in health care. • It should be action-oriented, i.e., aimed at developing solutions. • An integrated multi-disciplinary approach is required, i.e., research approaches from many disciplines are needed since health is affected by the broader context of socio- economic development. • The research should be participatory in nature, involving all parties concerned (from policymakers to community members) in all stages of the proposal. • Research must be timely. Otherwise, it loses its purpose. • Emphasis should be placed on comparatively simple, short-term research designs which are likely to yield practical results relatively quickly. • It should be cost-effective operational research should focus, to a large extent, on low- cost studies that can be undertaken by management and service personnel in the course of daily activities. • Results should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-makers and the community. • Evaluation of the research undertaken should concentrate on its ability to influence policy, improve services and ultimately lead to better health ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 50 STEP 4: Procedural Steps for Conducting Operational Research (60 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • ‘What steps to follow in conducting operational research? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents on the flow chart below • Research Proposal: A document written by a scientist that describes in detail the program for a proposed scientific investigation. • It can be envisaged as the process (step by step guidelines) of planning and giving structure to the prospective research, with the fina1 aim of increasing the validity of the research. • It is a written submission to spell out the nature of the design and the means and strategies that are going to be used in a logic format. • Purpose of Research Proposal o Provides a defined topic scope for researching. o Helps you to understand further how to address the technical problems of writing research. There are several steps to follow in chronological order in writing a research proposal: • Step 1; Select, analyze and state the research problem This step involves o identification of the problem o Problem prioritization o Problem analysis o Stating the problem – ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 51 • Step 2: Review literature and other available information • Step 3; Formulate Objectives • Step 4; Develop research methodology o variables o types of study o data collection techniques o sampling o plan for data collection o plan for data processing and analysis o ethical consideration o pretest/pilot study • Step 5: Prepare the work plan • Step 6: Identification of resources required and preparation of a budget • Step 7: Plan for project administration and utilization of results • Step 8 Collect data in the field (implement the proposal) • Step 9: Analyze collected data and interpret results • Step 10: Prepare and present a final report of the research

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Identification of Research Problem Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 8 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 8: Identification of Research Problem Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes of Individual Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define research problem • Identify research problems • Outline conditions for a problem to be researchable • Explain criteria for selecting a research topic • Explain how to prioritize topic for research Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 8.1: Research Problem Identification  Handout 8.2: Examples of Research and Non-Research Problems  Handout 8.3: Prioritizing Health Problems for Operational Research SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Definition of research problem 2 05 minutes Brainstorming Presentation Identification of research problem 3 30 minutes Buzzing Presentation Conditions for a problem to be researchable 4 10 minutes Presentation Criteria for selecting a research problem 5 55 minutes Small group discussion 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment: Identification and selection of ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 55 problem for research proposal ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 56 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Research Problem (5 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (3 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:  What is a research problem? ALLOW few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below  Identification and formulation of research problem is the first step of research process  A research problem is: o a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, o a condition to be improved upon, o a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. o A question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem to be solved ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 57 STEP 3: Identification of Problems for Research (30 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What methods can you use to identify problems for research in your profession? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their responses on the flip chart/whiteboard CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Research problems can be identified through: • Personal experiences • Practical experiences • Review of records/reports • Critical appraisal of literature • Previous research • Existing theories • Consumer/user feedback • Performance improvement • Social issues • Management meetings • Brainstorming STEP 4: Conditions for a problem to be researchable (10 minutes) Whether a problem situation requires research depends on three conditions: • There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy between what exists and the ideal or planned situation • The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so that it makes sense to develop research questions) • There should be more than one possible answer to a question or more than one solution to the problem. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 58 STEP 5: Criteria for Selecting Health-Related Problems to be Given Priority in Research (55 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • ‘What are criteria for selecting health – related problems? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • When there are many potential topics for research, a decision should be made to select one, which is of high priority • To do so, we need to compare the topics using some criteria. • The following are useful criteria: o Relevance o Avoidance of duplication o Urgency of data (timeliness) o Political acceptability of study o Feasibility of study o Applicability of results o Ethical acceptability • Each criterion has the rating scale to enable one to decide which problem to select. The following are the criteria and their rating scales • Relevance o the topic should be relevant o How large or widespread is the problem? o Who is affected? o How severe is the problem? Rating scale (scores) 1 = Not relevant 2 = Relevant 3 = Very relevant ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 59 • Avoidance of duplication We should avoid duplicating what is already well established o Check literature to see if the topic has been researched in the same area or elsewhere. o If so, ask whether there are issues that remain to be investigated Rating scale (scores) 1= Sufficient information available 2 = Some information available but major issues not covered 3 = No sound information available • Urgency of data (timeliness) o How urgently are the results needed? o Consider which research should be done first and which can be done later Rating scale (scores) 1= Information not urgently needed 2 = Information could be used right away but a delay of some months would be acceptable 3 = Information very urgently needed for use • Political acceptability of study Is the topic supported by the local/national

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Analysis and Statement of the Problem Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 9 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 9: Analysis and Statement of the Problem Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Identify factors contributed to the problem.  Clarify the relationship between the problem and contributing factors.  Decide on the scope and focus of the research  Formulate the problem statement Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 9.1: Formulating the Problem Statement  Handout 9.2: Sample Problem Analysis Diagram SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Factors Contributed to the Problem. 2 30 minutes Group discussion Presentation Relationship Between the Problem and 3 15 minutes Contributing Factors. Brainstorming 4 10 minutes Presentation The Scope and Focus of the Research 45minutes Presentation Formulation of the Problem Statement 5 Group discussion 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 69 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 70 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Factors Contributed to the Problem (30 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question  ‘What are the factors contributed to the problem you have selected? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below Analyzing the problem is a very crucial step in designing the research because it:  Enables those concerned to pool their knowledge of the problem  Clarifies the problem and the possible factors that may be contributing to it  Facilitates decisions concerning the focus and scope of the research  The factors contributed to the problem o You have to specify and describe the core problem you selected after prioritization  Quantify the selected problem. After identifying the core problem, you should: o Identify factors that may have contributed to the problem. o Clarify the relationship between the problem and contributing factors o It is helpful to visualize these inter relationships in the form of a diagram. o The basic principles of constructing such a diagram are illustrated below ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 71  Identify further contributing factors. o Extend the problem analysis diagram further by identifying additional factors that could have contributed to or aggravated the problem. o It may be possible to identify several ‗generations‘ of predisposing factors, by asking ‗but why‘  Organise related factors together into larger categories and develop final draft diagram. For example o Many researchers group contributing factors into four main categories:  Socio-cultural factors  Economic factors  Service-related factors  Disease-related factors STEP 3: Relationship Between the Problem and Contributing Factors (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  What is the relationship between the problem and contributing factors? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  The relationships between contributing factors and the problem can be indicated by arrows o One-way arrow (for cause-effect relationships) or ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 72 o Two-way arrows (for mutual relationships)  The core problem can be identified by drawing a double line around it STEP 4: The Scope and Focus of the Research (10 minutes)  Scoping is figuring out what, exactly, to explore for a study  Decide on the focus and scope of the research  Not necessary to research on all factors if too many STEP 5: Formulation of the Problem Statement (45 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (25 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to formulate statement of the problem they have selected from prioritization ALLOW them to discuss for 15 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below What information should be included in the statement of the problem? • A brief description of socio-economic and cultural characteristics and an overview of health status and the health-care system in the country/district in as far as these are relevant to the problem. Include a few illustrative statistics, if available, to help describe the context in which the problem occurs. • A concise description of the nature of the problem (the discrepancy between what is and what should be) and of the size, distribution and severity of the problem (who is affected, where, since when, and what are the consequences for those affected and for the services). For a descriptive study you will elaborate the different components of the problem. • An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a discussion of why certain factors need more investigation if the problem is to be fully understood. • A brief description of any solutions to the problem that have been tried in the past, how well they have worked, and why further research is needed (justification for your study). • A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how this information will be

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Literature Review in Research Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 10 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 10: Literature Review in Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes Assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe the reasons for reviewing available literature • Identify the resources that are available for carrying out such a review • Prepare index cards for summarization of important information obtained from literature • Prepare a review of literature pertaining to research topic Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method Introduction, Learning Tasks 1 05 minutes Presentation Presentation 2 15 minutes Reasons for Reviewing Available Literature Buzzing Presentation Identification of Resources that are Available 3 10 minutes Brainstorming for Carrying out Literature Review. Presentation Summarizing Important Information Obtained 4 55 minutes Lecture discussion from Index Cards 5 20 minutes Presentation Review of Literature Pertaining to Research Topic 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Individual Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 80 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Reasons for Reviewing Available Literature (15 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (5 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question  What are the reasons for reviewing literature? ALLOW students to discuss for 2 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • A literature review is the reading of the work of others before starting your research and doing a summary about previous studies on the topic. • A literature review provides a helpful guide to a topic. • The focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions. • A researcher needs to find out what has been done already, and build on that foundation, because scientific research is cumulative. o This involves determining what has been done and what still needs to be done, and examining what books and professional journals have already revealed in your area or country, or in other areas/countries with similar problems/context. • It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before. • It helps you to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem you want to study. This may assist you in refining your statement of the problem. • It helps you to become more familiar with the various research approaches that might be used in your study. • It should provide you with convincing arguments for why your particular research project is needed. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 81 STEP 3: Identification of Resources that are Available for Carrying Out Literature Review (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • ‘What are the resources available for carrying out literature review? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Resources that are available for carrying out literature review include: o People (individuals or groups, organizations) o Publications (books which compile research information, journals (hard or electronic copies) o Unpublished information [grey literature) e.g. Dissertation, research reports not in journals, computer data base o Supervisors and fellow students  Sources could be at different levels of administrative system o Community level, district and regional levels and provincial level o National levels – e.g. national libraries, Ministries of Health, central statistics, etc. o International levels – UNICEF, WHO, USAID, etc.; including computerized search for international literature ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 82 Sources of Information at Various Levels of Administrative System SN Administrative level Example of resource 1 • Opinions, beliefs of key informants (through Community and district interviews), in addition to written sources or provincial levels • Clinic- and hospital- based data from routine statistics, registers • Clinical observations, reports of critical incidents • Local surveys, annual service reports • Statistics issued at provincial and district levels • Newspapers, books, articles, mimeographed reports, etc. 2. National Level • Articles from national journals, books identified during literature searches at university and other national libraries, WHO, UNICEF libraries, etc. • Special collections, e.g., newspaper clippings, archival records, library or congress collections • Documentation, reports and raw data from: The Ministry of Health (e.g., 5-year plans) central statistical offices Non-governmental organizations • Information from: 3. International level • Bilateral and multilateral organisations (e.g., IDRC, USAID, UNICEF, WHO); • Computerised searches for international literature (from national library or international institutions). ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 83 STEP 4: Summarizing Important Information Obtained from Index Cards (55 minutes)  Strategy 1: What to do with identified information o Read through o Summarize the content relevant to your study (use index card) Note pertinent information  Title of article  Author  Title of Journal/Book, Page, Year, etc (see later)  Aim of study  Methodology  Major findings  Utility of information  Write the literature review section  Prepare list of references  Strategy 2: What to do with identified information o Organize in groups of related information/themes o Sequence the information – from far to near (for each theme) e.g.

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Objectives and Questions Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 11 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 11: Research Objectives and Questions Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define general and specific objectives • Outline the characteristics of research objectives • State the difference between general and specific objectives • Prepare research objectives in an appropriate format for the project you are developing • Develop research questions appropriate for the study Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector • Handout 11.1: Broad and Specific Objectives SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 10 minutes Presentation 2 Definition of General and Specific Objectives Brainstorming 10 minutes Presentation 3 Characteristics of Research Objectives Brainstorming Presentation 4 20 minutes The Difference Between General and Specific Buzzing Objectives 35 minutes Presentation 5 Preparation of Research Objectives Lecture discussion 6 Development of Research Questions 25 minutes Presentation 05 minutes 7 Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 88 9 05 minutes Presentation Assignment SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of General and Specific Objectives (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following questions for 2 minutes • What is an objective? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Research studies should include a statement of o Broad objective o Specific objectives o Hypotheses (except in the case of purely exploratory or descriptive studies) • Objectives: Summary of what is intended to be achieved by the study.  General objective also known as Broad objective o The objective of a research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study. o The general objective of a study states what is expected to be achieved by the study in general terms. o It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as specific objectives. o Related to core problem o Shows target population and place o Use action verb o Normally only one per study  Specific objectives o Explain the broad objective in specific o Should systematically address:  The various aspects of the problem‘ ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 89  Key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.  They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.  Usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem • Hypothesis o Statement/a specific prediction about the nature and expected direction of the relationship between two or more variables that permit empirical testing. • Why should research objectives be developed? o To clarify and focus your intentions /focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials). o To have a basis for measuring your achievements at the end of the study. o To avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem, you have identified. o To organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. o To facilitate the development of your research methodology and orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 90 STEP 3: Characteristics of Research Objectives (10 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (3 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • What are characteristics of research objectives? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Objectives must be SMART. o S = Specific: Specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose. o M= Measurable: Can be evaluated. o A = Action oriented. o R = Realistic: Considering local conditions can be done. o T = Time bound: When exactly will the activities be carried out? Pharmaceutical services dispensaries, then the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons for this low utilization pharmaceutical services dispensaries in Mongoro district, in order to find solutions. • Formulating Specific Objectives o Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under 'Statement of the Problem‘ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. o They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose. • The first specific objective usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem. • It may be helpful to use the diagram as a point of departure and check whether the problem and all major, directly contributing factors (analytic study) or major components (descriptive or evaluation study) have been covered by the objectives. • An objective indicating how the results will be used should be included in every operational study, either as part of the general objective or as a specific objective. Refer students to Handout 11.1: Broad and Specific Objectives ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 91 • How to State Objectives o It should cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence. o Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Review of Study Types/Designs Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 12 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 12: Review of Study Types/Designs Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe the study types most used in research • Explain uses and limitation of each study type most used in research • Describe how the study design can influence the validity and reliability of the study result • Identify the most appropriate study design for research proposal being developed Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 40 minutes Study Types Most Used in Research Brainstorming Presentation Uses and Limitation of Study Types most Used in 3 35 minutes Buzzing Research 4 15 minutes Presentation Influence of Study Design on the Validity and Reliability of the Study Result 10 minutes Presentation 5 Identification of the Most Appropriate Study Design for Research Proposal being developed 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 98 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Study Types Most Used in Research (10 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:  What study types are mostly used in research? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below REFER SESSION 6 STEP 3: Uses and Limitation of Each Study Type Most Used in Research (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • ‘What are the uses and limitation of each study type most used in research? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content in SESSION 6 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 99 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 100 STEP 4: Influence of Study Design on the Validity and Reliability of the Study Result (15 minutes) • Validity: means that your scientific observations actually measure what they intend to measure (your conclusions are true). o Internal validity: Difference in the dependent variable is actually a result of the o independent variable. o External validity: Results of the study are generalizable to other groups and environments outside the experimental setting. • Reliability: means that someone else using the same method in the same circumstances should be able to obtain the same findings (your findings are repeatable). o Reliability (repeatability) refers to the possibility to replicate (repeat) the observations and is related to the precision of the instrument used for scientific observations. o Validity refers to the soundness of the observations and to the accurateness of the data collected by the research method/instrument. STEP 5: Identification of the Most Appropriate Study Design for Research (10 Minutes)  Consider: o Nature of the problem/topic o State of knowledge about the problem/topic o Resources available o Skills of the researcher STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes)  A descriptive study involves describing the characteristics of a particular situation, event or case ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 101  An analytical study attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems  Any study designs used, should give valid and reliable findings STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes)  What study types are most used in research?  What will you consider when selecting study design for research proposal? STEP 8: Assignment (5 minutes) Activity: Take Home Individual Assignment (5 minutes) ASK each student to select an appropriate study type/design for a research proposal being developed ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignment and submit REFER students to recommended reference ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 102 References Hardon A, Boonmongkon P, and Streefland P. et al (2001). Applied Health research, Anthropology of health and health care, (3rd Ed) Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Het Spinhuis Publishers Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology: Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, Kothari C.R (1985). Research Methodology – Methods and techniques, (2nd ed); New Delhi, India; Wiley Eastern Limited Stewart A (2001). Basic Statistics and epidemiology, A practical guide,; London, United Kingdom: Radcliffe Medical Press, Varkevisser, C. M, Pathmanathan, I and Brownlee, A (1991). Designing and Conducting Health Systems Research Projects, Vol. 2 Part I: Ottawa, Canada: IDRC ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 103 ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Operational Research topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Sampling Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 13 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 13: Research Sampling Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Define the common terms used in sampling  Identify the population(s) to be studied  Describe common methods of sampling  Explain reasons for sampling  Describe source of bias in sampling that should be avoided Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 13.1: Types of sampling methods and when to use it SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 2 20 minutes Presentation Definition of the Common Terms Used in Sampling 20 minutes Presentation Identification of the Population(s) to be Studied 3 Buzzing 35 minutes Presentation 4 Group Common Methods of Sampling discussion 5 10 minutes Presentation Reasons for Sampling 6 15 minutes Presentation Source of Bias in Sampling that Should be Avoided 7 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 104 9 05 minutes Presentation Assignment SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Common Terms Used in Sampling (20 minutes) • Sampling: Process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study population. o For studies which involve only small numbers of people all of them can be included in the investigation. o For research which focuses on a large population, for practical reasons, it is only possible to include some of its members in the investigation. It is important to draw a sample from the total population.  Sampling unit o A single section selected to research and gather statistics of the whole. o For example, when studying a group of college students, a single student could be a sampling unit. o Unit of selection in the sampling process, e.g. Person, a school, a household, etc.  Sampling frame o a list of units from which a sample is to be picked  Sampling fraction (sampling ratio) o a proportion of sampling units to be picked from a specified sampling frame = number units in a sample number of units in sampling frame  Sampling interval o An interval at which units are picked from a sampling frame when systematic sampling is done. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 105 STEP 3: Identifying the Population (s) to be Studied (20 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  ‘What is study population? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Study population o Collective of study units for which the values of the varieties of interest could possibly be determined. o In identifying the population(s) to be studied we must consider the following questions:  What is the group of people (STUDY POPULATION) we are interested in from which we want to draw a sample?  How many people do we need in our sample?  How will these people be selected?  Sample is a subset of study population selected to participate in the research when whole study population cannot be reached o The study population has to be clearly defined (for example, according to age, sex, and residence.) Otherwise we cannot do the sampling o Each study population consists of STUDY UNITS. The way we define our study population and our study unit depends on the problem we want to investigate and on the objectives of the study • Representativeness o If researchers want to draw conclusions which are valid for the whole study population, which requires a quantitative study design, they should take care to draw a sample in such a way that it is representative of that population. o A representative sample has all the important characteristics of the population from which it is drawn ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 106 Figure 1: Relationship between population and sample STEP 4: Common Methods of Sampling (35 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • What are the common methods of sampling? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below  The common methods of sampling are:  Two types of sampling probability and non-probability o Non-probability o Probability (random sampling) • Probability Sampling (Quantitative Data) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 107 o Involves using random selection procedures, to ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen on the basis of chance. o All units of the study population should have an equal, or at least a known chance of being included in the sample. o Requires listing of all study units exist or can be compiled. This listing is called the sampling frame. • Types of random or probability sampling o Simple random sampling o Systematic sampling o Stratified sampling o Cluster sampling o Multistage sampling • Simple Random Sampling To select a simple random sample, you need to: o Make or search for an existing numbered list of all the units in the population from which you want

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Determining Sample Size Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 14 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 14: Determining Sample Size Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • List the issues to consider when deciding on sample size • Calculate the sample size (desirable) • Determine the sample size(s) most appropriate for the research design (feasible) Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 15 minutes Issues to Consider when Deciding on Sample Size Buzzing 50 minutes Presentation 3 Calculation of the Sample Size (Desirable) Brainstorming 4 35 minutes Presentation Determination of Sample Size(s) Most Appropriate for the Research Design (Feasible) 5 Key Points 05 minutes Presentation 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 7 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 117 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Issues to Consider when Deciding on Sample Size (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes:  What issues should be considered when deciding on sample size? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • There are no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research. The size of the sample depends on WHAT you try to find out, WHY you try to find out, and HOW you are going to use the data  the sample size depends on the type of problem investigated, required precision and to a certain extent, the resource available  If your research objective is more complex e.g., attitudes of males and females towards family planning, and has policy implications for a larger area, your sample will be bigger.  Very few studies use the whole population (Census)  Most studies use a subset of a population (Sample)  How big should a sample be?  Too large or too little sample is unethical:  Too large: waste resources  Too little: Inconclusive results ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 118 STEP 3: Calculation of the Sample Size (Desirable) (50 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • ‘What is the desirable sample size? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Desirable sample size is that calculated using standard formulae • The following general rules may help to determine the desirable sample size of any given study: o The desirable sample size depends on the expected variation in the data (of the most important variables): the more varied the data are, the larger the sample size we would need to attain the desired level of accuracy. o The desirable sample size also depends on the number of cells we will have in the cross-tabulations which we need to analyze the results.  A rough guideline is to have at least 5 to 10 study units per cell o How big can be calculated. Still, the desirable sample size cannot always be achieved for lack of resources such as time, manpower and money.  This constraint applies to quantitative as well as qualitative studies  Therefore, the eventual sample size is usually a compromise between what is desirable and what is feasible o Sample size calculations ` The following steps should be taken:  Estimate how big the proportion might be (say 80%)  Choose the margin of error you will allow in the estimate of the proportion (say + 10%). This means that, if in the survey indeed 80% of the children are found to be vaccinated, this proportion will probably be between 70 and 90% in the whole study population from which the sample was drawn.  Choose the precision with which you want to be confident that the vaccination coverage in the whole population is indeed between 70 and 90%. You can never be 100% sure. Do you want to be 95% sure? Or 99%? ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 119 o Formulae N = z2PQ d2 N = Minimum sample size Z = Constant, Standard normal deviate (1.96 for 95% Confidence level) P = Population proportion with characteristic of interest Q=1–P d = Acceptable Margin of error STEP 4: Determination of Sample Size(s) Most Appropriate for the Research Design (Feasible) (35minutes)  The feasible sample size determination o Is not calculated, depends on available resources (human, time, money, transport)  Availability of finance: in practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of money available for the study purposes. This factor should be kept in view while determining the size of sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of sampling estimates o Depends on expected variation in the data: the more varied the data are, the larger the sample size one would need to attain the same level of accuracy o Depends on the number of cells one will have in the cross-tabulations required to analyze the result  A rough guideline is to have at least 20-30 study units per cell o Eventual sample size – is a compromise between desirable and feasible o Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously