PST06210 Operational Research

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Determining Sample Size Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 14 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 14: Determining Sample Size Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • List the issues to consider when deciding on sample size • Calculate the sample size (desirable) • Determine the sample size(s) most appropriate for the research design (feasible) Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 15 minutes Issues to Consider when Deciding on Sample Size Buzzing 50 minutes Presentation 3 Calculation of the Sample Size (Desirable) Brainstorming 4 35 minutes Presentation Determination of Sample Size(s) Most Appropriate for the Research Design (Feasible) 5 Key Points 05 minutes Presentation 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 7 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 117 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Issues to Consider when Deciding on Sample Size (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes:  What issues should be considered when deciding on sample size? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • There are no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research. The size of the sample depends on WHAT you try to find out, WHY you try to find out, and HOW you are going to use the data  the sample size depends on the type of problem investigated, required precision and to a certain extent, the resource available  If your research objective is more complex e.g., attitudes of males and females towards family planning, and has policy implications for a larger area, your sample will be bigger.  Very few studies use the whole population (Census)  Most studies use a subset of a population (Sample)  How big should a sample be?  Too large or too little sample is unethical:  Too large: waste resources  Too little: Inconclusive results ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 118 STEP 3: Calculation of the Sample Size (Desirable) (50 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • ‘What is the desirable sample size? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Desirable sample size is that calculated using standard formulae • The following general rules may help to determine the desirable sample size of any given study: o The desirable sample size depends on the expected variation in the data (of the most important variables): the more varied the data are, the larger the sample size we would need to attain the desired level of accuracy. o The desirable sample size also depends on the number of cells we will have in the cross-tabulations which we need to analyze the results.  A rough guideline is to have at least 5 to 10 study units per cell o How big can be calculated. Still, the desirable sample size cannot always be achieved for lack of resources such as time, manpower and money.  This constraint applies to quantitative as well as qualitative studies  Therefore, the eventual sample size is usually a compromise between what is desirable and what is feasible o Sample size calculations ` The following steps should be taken:  Estimate how big the proportion might be (say 80%)  Choose the margin of error you will allow in the estimate of the proportion (say + 10%). This means that, if in the survey indeed 80% of the children are found to be vaccinated, this proportion will probably be between 70 and 90% in the whole study population from which the sample was drawn.  Choose the precision with which you want to be confident that the vaccination coverage in the whole population is indeed between 70 and 90%. You can never be 100% sure. Do you want to be 95% sure? Or 99%? ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 119 o Formulae N = z2PQ d2 N = Minimum sample size Z = Constant, Standard normal deviate (1.96 for 95% Confidence level) P = Population proportion with characteristic of interest Q=1–P d = Acceptable Margin of error STEP 4: Determination of Sample Size(s) Most Appropriate for the Research Design (Feasible) (35minutes)  The feasible sample size determination o Is not calculated, depends on available resources (human, time, money, transport)  Availability of finance: in practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of money available for the study purposes. This factor should be kept in view while determining the size of sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of sampling estimates o Depends on expected variation in the data: the more varied the data are, the larger the sample size one would need to attain the same level of accuracy o Depends on the number of cells one will have in the cross-tabulations required to analyze the result  A rough guideline is to have at least 20-30 study units per cell o Eventual sample size – is a compromise between desirable and feasible o Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Operational Research – Complete Full Notes Complete educational source text in one page Completeness safeguard: this page keeps the complete educational module/source wording in one place so learning material is not lost when browsing topic by topic. Presenter/tutor metadata is intentionally excluded. UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 March 2019 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide i Copyright © Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children – 2019 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide ii Table of Contents Background …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iv Acknowledgment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… vi Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. viii Abbreviations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xi Session 1: Basic Statistical Concepts …………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Session 2: Basic Biostatistics Data ……………………………………………………………………………………. 7 Session 3: Data Presentation …………………………………………………………………………………………… 13 Session 4: Establishing Trends in Health Care ………………………………………………………………….. 23 Session 5: Basic Concept of Research ……………………………………………………………………………… 32 Session 6:Classification of Research ……………………………………………………………………………….. 36 Session 7: Procedures for Conducting Operational Research ………………………………………………. 48 Session 8: Identification of Research Problem …………………………………………………………………. 55 Session 9: Analysis and Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………………….. 69 Session 10: Literature Review in Research ………………………………………………………………………. 80 Session 11: Research Objectives and Questions ………………………………………………………………… 88 Session 12: Review of Study Types/Designs…………………………………………………………………….. 98 Session 13: Research Sampling …………………………………………………………………………………….. 104 Session 14: Determining Sample Size ……………………………………………………………………………. 117 Session 15: Research Ethics………………………………………………………………………………………….. 124 Session 16: Developing Research Tools …………………………………………………………………………. 131 Session 17: Pre-Testing the Research Tools ……………………………………………………………………. 173 Session 18: Data Collection Plan …………………………………………………………………………………… 182 Session 19: Research Budget ………………………………………………………………………………………… 197 Session 20: Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 207 Session 21: Data Collection – Field Work Activities ………………………………………………………… 216 Session 22: Data Processing …………………………………………………………………………………………. 219 Session 23: Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 227 Session 24: Research Report Writing …………………………………………………………………………….. 244 Session 25: Methods for Dissemination of Research Findings ………………………………………….. 260 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide iii Background There is currently an ever-increasing demand for pharmaceutical personnel in Tanzania. This is due to expanding investment in public and private pharmaceutical sector. Shortage of trained pharmaceutical human resource contributes to poor quality of pharmaceutical services and low access to medicines in the country (GIZ, 2012). Through Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) the Pharmacy Council (PC) together with Development Partners (DPs) in Germany and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs) worked together to address the shortage of human resource for pharmacy by designing a project named “Supporting Training Institutions for Improved Pharmaceutical Services in Tanzania‖ in order to improve quality and capacity of PTIs in training. CSSC prepared a Multi-actor Partnership (MAP) project proposal on how to sustain and strengthen health care in Tanzania through improvement of pharmaceutical training and an inter-institutional coordination of actors. This will harmonize and improve access to quality pharmaceutical service in Tanzania. The project has a various key stakeholders like; CSSC, NACTE, PC, TCU, CEDHA and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs). Through this project, few PTIs will receive infrastructural improvements to increase the quantitative and qualitative capacities (CUHAS, RUCU and KSP). Furthermore this project will train Pharmaceutical tutors from different PTIs on teaching and assessment methods in Tanzania and thus improved health delivery through increased qualified human resource. It was also observed that in the previous stakeholder‘s meetings there was a need for the development of training manuals and assessment plans for NTA Level 5 & 6, in order to support the establishment and implementation of the curriculum in PTIs. During MAP kick- off workshop done in February 2018, Stakeholders agreed that there was a need for development of the said manuals and it was among the highest priority in Pharmacy education in Tanzania. Therefore this project aims at developing facilitator‘s guide and assessment plans for NTA Level 5 & 6. Pharmacy Council, CSSC and action medeor developed the Terms of Reference and selected a qualified service provider with experience in material development to develop the mentioned training manuals and assessment plan. Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) was selected and offered a contract to develop Facilitators guide for NTA level 5 & 6 and assessment plan. Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) was offered a leading role with the instructions to include experts who have developed teaching materials for NTA Level 4. These experts are primarily experienced pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical tutors. The mode of operation used by CEDHA to develop facilitator‘s guide and assessment plan was participatory approach which included a number of activities through various workshops such as planning, and orientation of material development. After these preliminary ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide iv workshops, experts developed materials individually and in-groups. Thereafter, developed draft materials were reviewed, edited and formatted and draft one was finalized and shared to stakeholders for inputs. Finally, CEDHA submitted the finalized Facilitator‘s guides and assessment plans for NTA level 5 and 6 to CSSC for endorsement, printing, dissemination and sharing with relevant authorities. There are 12 modules for NTA level 6 making 12 Facilitator guides and one Practicum guide. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide v Acknowledgment The development of standardized training materials of a competence-based curriculum for pharmaceutical sciences has been accomplished through involvement of different stakeholders. Special thanks go to the Pharmacy Council for spearheading the harmonization of training materials in the pharmacy after noticing that training institutions in Tanzania were using different curricula and train their students differently. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Christian Social Service Commission (CSSC) for their tireless efforts to mobilize funds from development partners (German Ministry of Industry and action medeor). It is through the implementation of the Multi-Actors Partnership (MAP) project, CSSC has been able to provide the financial and technical support needed during the development of this training material. Many thanks go to the Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) experts on health material development and training who coordinated the development of these module sessions particularly

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Methods for Dissemination of Research Findings ………………………………………….. 260 Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 25 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 25: Methods for Dissemination of Research Findings ………………………………………….. 260 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide iii Background There is currently an ever-increasing demand for pharmaceutical personnel in Tanzania. This is due to expanding investment in public and private pharmaceutical sector. Shortage of trained pharmaceutical human resource contributes to poor quality of pharmaceutical services and low access to medicines in the country (GIZ, 2012). Through Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) the Pharmacy Council (PC) together with Development Partners (DPs) in Germany and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs) worked together to address the shortage of human resource for pharmacy by designing a project named “Supporting Training Institutions for Improved Pharmaceutical Services in Tanzania‖ in order to improve quality and capacity of PTIs in training. CSSC prepared a Multi-actor Partnership (MAP) project proposal on how to sustain and strengthen health care in Tanzania through improvement of pharmaceutical training and an inter-institutional coordination of actors. This will harmonize and improve access to quality pharmaceutical service in Tanzania. The project has a various key stakeholders like; CSSC, NACTE, PC, TCU, CEDHA and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs). Through this project, few PTIs will receive infrastructural improvements to increase the quantitative and qualitative capacities (CUHAS, RUCU and KSP). Furthermore this project will train Pharmaceutical tutors from different PTIs on teaching and assessment methods in Tanzania and thus improved health delivery through increased qualified human resource. It was also observed that in the previous stakeholder‘s meetings there was a need for the development of training manuals and assessment plans for NTA Level 5 & 6, in order to support the establishment and implementation of the curriculum in PTIs. During MAP kick- off workshop done in February 2018, Stakeholders agreed that there was a need for development of the said manuals and it was among the highest priority in Pharmacy education in Tanzania. Therefore this project aims at developing facilitator‘s guide and assessment plans for NTA Level 5 & 6. Pharmacy Council, CSSC and action medeor developed the Terms of Reference and selected a qualified service provider with experience in material development to develop the mentioned training manuals and assessment plan. Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) was selected and offered a contract to develop Facilitators guide for NTA level 5 & 6 and assessment plan. Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) was offered a leading role with the instructions to include experts who have developed teaching materials for NTA Level 4. These experts are primarily experienced pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical tutors. The mode of operation used by CEDHA to develop facilitator‘s guide and assessment plan was participatory approach which included a number of activities through various workshops such as planning, and orientation of material development. After these preliminary ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide iv workshops, experts developed materials individually and in-groups. Thereafter, developed draft materials were reviewed, edited and formatted and draft one was finalized and shared to stakeholders for inputs. Finally, CEDHA submitted the finalized Facilitator‘s guides and assessment plans for NTA level 5 and 6 to CSSC for endorsement, printing, dissemination and sharing with relevant authorities. There are 12 modules for NTA level 6 making 12 Facilitator guides and one Practicum guide. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide v Acknowledgment The development of standardized training materials of a competence-based curriculum for pharmaceutical sciences has been accomplished through involvement of different stakeholders. Special thanks go to the Pharmacy Council for spearheading the harmonization of training materials in the pharmacy after noticing that training institutions in Tanzania were using different curricula and train their students differently. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Christian Social Service Commission (CSSC) for their tireless efforts to mobilize funds from development partners (German Ministry of Industry and action medeor). It is through the implementation of the Multi-Actors Partnership (MAP) project, CSSC has been able to provide the financial and technical support needed during the development of this training material. Many thanks go to the Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) experts on health material development and training who coordinated the development of these module sessions particularly Ms. Diana H. Gamuya for her commitment in coordinating and facilitating the planning and development to its completion. Particular acknowledgements are sent to Mr. Dickson Mtalitinya and Members from the secretariat of National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) for facilitating and providing their expertise to the success of this work. It will be unfair if I will not recognize the efforts and contributions of all CEDHA supportive staff that made this process a success; accountant, secretary, drivers and printers Finally, I very much appreciate the contributions of the tutors and content experts representing PTIs, hospitals, and other health training institutions. Their participation in meetings and workshops, and their input in the development of this training manual/facilitators guide have been invaluable. These participants are listed with our gratitude below: Ms. Elizabeth Shekalaghe Registrar, Pharmacy Council of Tanzania Dr. Fadhili Lyimo Assistant Director Allied Health, MoHCDGEC Dr. Jacqueline Uriyo Acting Principal, CEDHA Dr. Sungwa N. Kabissi Project Manager – MAP, CSSC Ms. Diana H. Gamuya CEDHA Ms. Grace Mallange PC ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide vi Ms. Emily Mwakibolwa Pharmacy Council Ms. Tumaini H. Lyombe MUHAS Ms. Dilisi J. Makawia KSP Director of Human Resources Development Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide vii Introduction Module Overview This module content is a guide for tutors of Pharmaceutical schools for training of students. The session contents are based on sub-enabling outcomes and their related tasks

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Report Writing Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 24 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 24: Research Report Writing Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • List the main components of a research report • Make an outline of research report • Write drafts of report in stages • Check the final draft of report for completeness • Draft recommendations for action based on research findings Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation The Main Components of a Research Report 2 15 minutes Brainstorming 40 minutes Presentation An Outline of Research Report. 3 Group discussion 4 30 minutes Presentation Drafts of Report in Stages. 5 10 minutes Presentation Checking the Final Draft for Completeness 10 minutes Recommendations for Action Based on Research 6 Presentation Findings 7 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 244 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: The Main Components of a Research Report (15 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:  What are the main components of a research report? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • The research report outline should contain the following components in the following order: o Title and Cover Page o Summary of Study Design, Findings and Recommendations o Acknowledgements o Table of Contents o List of tables, figures (optional) o List of abbreviations (optional) o Introduction (statement of the problem in its local context, including relevant literature) o Objectives o Methodology o Research Findings o Discussion o Conclusions and Recommendations o References o Annexes (data collection tools; tables) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 245 • Note: When assigning page numbers to the report, components bullet number 1-6 use small Roman Numerals (For example: i, ii, iii, iv, v…). • Introduction (Component number 7), is Page 1 of the actual report. • The findings, discussion of findings, conclusions and recommendations will form the most substantial part of the report, which has to be written from scratch. • It is strongly advised that start with the findings, discussion and conclusions. • Write each component in stages as follows: o Create an outline o Write Introduction o Write the Objectives o Write the Methodology o Write your Findings o Discuss your Findings o Write conclusions and recommendations o References o Annex o Summary o Acknowledgement o Table of contents o Title and Cover page STEP 3: An Outline of Research Report (40 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • What is an outline of a research report? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the following contents • An outline of a research report: o Cover page  The cover page should contain the • Title • The names of the authors with their titles and positions, ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 246 • The institution that is publishing the report, (e.g., Research Unit, Ministry of Health) and • The month and year of publication. • The title in line with the broad objectives o Abstract/Summary  The summary should be written only after the first or even the second draft of the report has been completed. It should contain: • A very brief description of the problem (WHY this study was needed) • The main objectives (WHAT has been studied) • The place of study (WHERE) • The type of study and methods used (HOW) • Major findings and conclusions, followed by • The major (or all) recommendations • The summary will be the first part of the study that will be read. o Acknowledgements  It is good practice to thank those who supported you technically or financially in the design and implementation of your study.  Also, your employer who has allowed you to invest time in the study and the respondents may be acknowledged.  Acknowledgements are usually placed right after the title page or at the end of the report, before the references o Table of contents  It provides the reader a quick overview of the major sections of your report, with page references  List of tables, figures  List of abbreviations (optional)  The table of contents and lists of tables, figures, abbreviations should be prepared last o Chapter 1: Introduction  Contains  Background information  Statement of the problem  Literature review collected during the implementation of the study o Chapter 2: Objectives  The general and specific objectives should be included as stated in the proposal.  You can adjust them slightly for style and sequence.  If you have not been able to meet some of the objectives state them in the methodology section and in the discussion of the findings. o Chapter 3: Methodology Should be described in detail and include a description of:  The study type  The study population(s), sampling method(s) and the size of the sample(s)  Major study variables ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 247  Data-collection techniques and

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Data Analysis Total Session Time: 120 minutes Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 23 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 23: Data Analysis Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Describe data in terms of frequency distribution, percentages and proportion  Use figures to present data.  Explain the difference between mean, mode and median  Calculate the frequencies, percentages, proportion, ratios, rates means, medians, modes for major variables.  Identify variables that are necessary for analysis of the collected data Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Description of Data in Terms of Frequency 2 15 minutes Brainstorming Distribution, Percentages and Proportion 10 minutes 3 Presentation Using Figures to Present Data. 20minutes Presentation 4 Group Difference Between Mean, Mode and Median discussion 20 minutes Calculation of the Frequencies, Percentages, 5 Presentation Proportion, Ratios, Rates Means, Medians, Modes for Major Variables. 40 minutes 6 Presentation Identification of Variables that are Necessary for ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 228 Analysis of the Collected Data 7 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Description of Data in Terms of Frequency Distribution, Percentages and Proportion (10 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question  What is frequency distribution, percentages and proportion? ALLOWS few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Data analysis involves the production and interpretation of frequencies, tables, graphs, etc., that describe the data. o Frequency counts  From the data master sheets, simple tables can be made with frequency counts for each variable.  A frequency count is an enumeration of how often a certain measurement or a certain answer to a specific question occurs.  For example Smokers 51 Non-smokers 93 Total 144  If numbers are large enough it is better to calculate the frequency distribution in percentages (relative frequencies): ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 229 • 51/144 x 100 = 35% are smokers and 93/144 x 100 = 65% non-smokers. • This makes it easier to compare groups than when only absolute numbers are given. In other words, percentages standardize the data. • It is usually necessary to summarize the data from numerical variables by dividing them into categories. This process may include the following steps: o Inspect all the figures: What is their range? (The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest measurement.) o Divide the range into three to five categories. You can either aim at having a reasonable number in each category (e.g. 0-2 km, 3-4 km, 5-9 km, 10+ km for home- clinic distance) or you can define the categories in such a way that they are each equal in size (e.g., 20-29 years, 30-39 years, 40-49 years, etc.) o Construct a table indicating how data are grouped and count the number of observations in each group. STEP 3: Using Figures to Present Data (10 minutes) • Figures o Figures make the descriptive data more readable when you have many tables o Numerical data  Histograms  Line graphs  Scatter diagrams  maps o Categorical data  Bar charts  Pie charts • Bar charts o Is simplest and most effective means of illustrating qualitative data o Bars can either be horizontal or vertical o Eg.57 Adolescents from Kaloleni streets in Arusha were asked the following question: How often have you used cannabis for the past one year? This was closed question with the following possible answers o Frequently (more than 5 times), Occasionally ( 3 to 5 times), rarely (1 to 2 times)and never Categories Number Percentage Frequently 7 12.2 Occasionally 9 15.8 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 230 Rarely 10 17.5 Never 31 54.4 Total 57 100  Pie charts o Provides quick view of data presented in different form. o Used in qualitative number with few categories to avoid congestion  Histograms ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 231 o Numerical data are often presented in histograms o Which are similar to bar charts important difference is that in histogram ‗the bars‘ are connected (as long as there is no gap between the data where as in bar charts are not connected as the different categories are distinct entitles)  Line graphs o Particularly useful for numerical data if you want to show Trend over time o It is easy to show two or more distribution in one graph as long as difference between lines are easy to distinguish e.g. age distribution between males and females STEP 4: The Difference Between Mean, Mode and Median (30 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • What is the difference between mean, mode and median? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • Mean o The mean of a data set is also known as the average value. It is calculated by dividing the sum of all values in a data set by the number of values. o So, in a data set of

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Data Processing Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 22 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 22: Data Processing Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Categorize the data  Code the data  Summarize the data in data master sheets  Compile the data manually without master sheets Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 20 minutes Group Categorizing the Data discussion 20 minutes Presentation 3 Coding the Data Brainstorming 30 minutes 4 Presentation Summarizing the Data in Data Master Sheets 35 minutes 5 Presentation Compiling the Data Manually without Master Sheets 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 221 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Categorizing the Data (20 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • How are the data categorized? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • In data processing following important issues should be considered: o Sorting data o Performing quality-control checks o Data processing o Data analysis • Sorting Data o An appropriate system for sorting the data is important for facilitating subsequent processing and analysis. o If you have different study populations (for example village health workers, village health committees and the general population), number the questionnaires separately. o In a comparative study sort the data right after collection into the two or three groups that will be compared during data analysis. • Performing Quality Control Checks o Checked in the field to ensure that all the information has been properly collected and recorded. o Before and during data processing, the information should be checked again for completeness and internal consistency. o If a questionnaire has not been filled in completely you will have missing data for some of the variables. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 222 o If there are many missing data in a particular questionnaire, the decision may be to exclude the whole questionnaire from further analysis. o If an inconsistency is clearly due to a mistake made by the researcher/research assistant o For example, if a person in an earlier question is recorded as being a non-smoker, whereas all other questions reveal that he is smoking, it may still be possible to check with the person who conducted the interview and to correct the answer. • If the inconsistency is less clearly a mistake in recording, it may be possible (in a small scale study) to return to the respondent and ask for clarification. • If it is not possible to correct information that is clearly inconsistent, consider excluding this particular part of the data from further processing and analysis as it will affect the validity of the study. • If a certain question produces unclear answers throughout, the whole question should be excluded from further analysis. (Normally, however, you would discover such a problem during the pre-test and change the wording of the question.) • The Questions to be answered before Processing o Have the data been sorted appropriately? o Have questionnaires been numbered? o Major categories of informants distinguished? o Have quality checks been performed? For completeness and consistency of information? o Has all qualitative data been categorized as far as possible? • Data Processing – Quantitative Data o Decide on the method for processing and analyzing data from questionnaires  Manually, using data master sheets or manual compilation of the questionnaires  By computer, for example, using micro-computer and existing software or self- written programmes for data analysis • Data processing in both cases involves o Categorizing/classifying the data o Coding o Summarizing the data in data master sheets, manual compilation without master o sheets, or data entry and verification by computer • Categorizing/Classifying Data o Decisions have to be made concerning how to categorize responses. o Categorical variables that are investigated through closed questions or observation, the categories are decided earlier. o In interviews the answers to open-ended questions, the answers can be pre- categorized to a certain extent, depending on the knowledge of possible answers that may be given.  Answers that are difficult or impossible to categorize may be put in a separate residual category called ‗others‘, but this category should not contain more than 5% of the answers obtained. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 223 • For numerical variables, the data are often better collected without any pre-categorization. • If you do not exactly know the range and the dispersion of the different values of these variables when you collect your sample (e.g., home-clinic distance for out-patients, or income), decisions concerning how to categorize and code the data at the time you develop your tools may be premature. • If you notice during data analysis that your categories had been wrongly chosen you cannot reclassify the data anymore. STEP 3: Coding the Data (20 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (05 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • How are the data coded? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Coding o If

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Data Collection – Field Work Activities Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 21 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 21: Data Collection – Field Work Activities Total Session Time: 480 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Identify activities to be done before data collection  Collect data  Process data while in the field Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1. 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2. 15 minutes Activities to be done before data collection Buzzing Presentation 3. 20 minutes Lecture Data collection discussion Presentation 4. Data processing 10 minutes Brainstorming 5. 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6. 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 7. 05 minutes Presentation Field wok –data collection ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 216 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Activities to be Done before Data Collection Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  What are the activities to be done before data collection? ALLOWS few groups to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Briefing managers, health service personnel and community members concerned  Identifying and obtaining resources for the study  Reviewing availability of subjects and information  Organizing logistics for data collection  Preparing field work manuals (if necessary)  Training of research team members, including assistants  Conducting the pre-test in the research location, with preliminary data analysis and revision of data-collection tools (if was not done) STEP 3: Data Collection Having obtained permission for the study, and having  obtained the necessary resources,  trained the team members,  organized the logistics, and  Pre-tested and modified the data-collection tools and procedures, the data collection can now be carried out. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 217 STEP 4: Data Processing After collecting and sorting the data, all data should be checked for errors. The content may be converted into codes or keywords for processing by computer or using master sheets. The steps during this process include: 1. Editing/cleaning, 2. Categorizing and coding, 3. Summarizing data on data master sheets, or 4. If a computer is used, writing instructions to the computer analyst concerning data input and analysis. STEP 5: Key Points • Before one collects data, preparation is very important in terms of informing relevant authorities and seeking permission, preparing logistics and thing of staring data processing while in the field. STEP 6: Evaluation • What are the important preparations one will do before embarking in data collection? STEP 7: Field work – data collection Arrange areas for students to go and collect data using tools and techniques they have identified. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 218 References Hardon A, Boonmongkon P, and Streefland P. et al (2001). Applied Health research, Anthropology of health and health care, (3rd Ed) Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Het Spinhuis Publishers Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology: Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, Kothari C.R (1985). Research Methodology – Methods and techniques, (2nd ed); New Delhi, India; Wiley Eastern Limited Stewart A (2001). Basic Statistics and epidemiology, A practical guide,; London, United Kingdom: Radcliffe Medical Press, Varkevisser, C. M, Pathmanathan, I and Brownlee, A (1991). Designing and Conducting Health Systems Research Projects, Vol. 2 Part I: Ottawa, Canada: IDRC Polit, D. F and Beck, C. T (2004). Nursing Research – Principles and Methods, (7th Ed): Philadelphi, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 219 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 220 ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Operational Research topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Data Collection Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 20 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 20: Data Collection Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 360 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Review previous data-collection techniques  State the uses and limitations of different data collection methods  Mention issues to consider in selecting data collection methods  List advantages of using a combination of different data collection techniques  Explain difference between data collection methods and tools  Identify various sources of bias in data collection and ways of preventing Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 10 minutes Various Data-Collection Techniques Buzzing Presentation 3 Group The Uses and Limitations of Different Data Collection 35 minutes discussion Methods 4 Presentation Issues to Consider in Selecting Data Collection 10 minutes Methods 5 Presentation Advantages of Using a Combination of Different Data 10 minutes Collection Techniques 6 Presentation Difference between Data Collection 25 minutes Methods/techniques and Tools 7 Presentation Sources of Bias in Data Collection and Ways of 15 minutes Preventing ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 207 8 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 9 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Various Data-Collection Techniques (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  What are various data-collection techniques ALLOWS few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Data-collection techniques o Use of available information o Observation o Interview o Administering a questionnaire o Focus group discussion o In-depth interview ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 208 STEP 3: Uses and Limitations of Different Data Collection Methods (35 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • What are the uses and limitations of different data collection methods? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below  Use of available information o Means: Looking into records and extracting information o Advantages  Cheaper since information is already there  Doesn't depend on respondent‘s willingness to respond  Allow observation of trend o Disadvantages  May be difficult to access the data  Information may be incomplete or imprecise  Ethical concerns regarding confidentiality may arise  Observation o Means: Watching and recording, no talking with respondent o advantages  Gives information of what is currently happening  Doesn't depend on respondent‘s willingness to respond  Disadvantages  Observer may notice only what interests him/her (bias)  Presence of observer may influence behaviour of respondent  Ethical concerns regarding confidentiality may arise  Interview o Means: Asking a respondent questions orally o Advantages ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 209  Can be used for illiterates  Allows clarification of questions  Higher response rate o Disadvantages  Expensive (time, human resources)  Presence of interviewer may influence response  Administering a questionnaire o Means: giving respondents written questions (questionnaire) so that they read the questions themselves and provide answers o Advantages  Quick and cheap, no many research assistants needed  Allows anonymity, hence more honest responses o disadvantages  Require literate respondents  Response rate could be low  Questions may be misunderstood by respondents  Some respondents may choose responses simply because they saw it there, otherwise they wouldn't have thought of it  Focus group discussion o Means: A discussion of a topic by a group of selected persons guided by a facilitator o Advantages  Flexibility to explore new issues that arises  Findings are more believable  Relatively cheaper o Disadvantage  Discussion could base on irrelevant issues  Minority opinion may not be expressed  Difficult to analyse the data  Require highly trained moderator  In-depth interview o Means: A person to person conversation in order to gain insight into people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviour on important issues o Advantages  Collects large amount of data quickly  Allows clarification of issues o Disadvantages  Needs skilled interviewer  Data difficult to analyse  Views could be subjective STEP 4: Issues to Consider in Selecting Data Collection Methods (10 Minutes) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 210  Objectives of the study  Nature of required information (quantitative or qualitative)  Resources available (time, money, personnel)  Acceptability of the method by respondents ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 211 STEP 5: Advantages of Using a Combination of Different Data Collection Techniques (10 minutes) • Data collection techniques can complement each other. • A skillful use of a combination of different techniques can reduce the chance of bias and give a more comprehensive understanding of the topic under study. • Researchers often use a combination of flexible and less flexible research techniques. • Flexible techniques include: o Loosely structured interviews using open-ended questions. o Focus group discussions. o Participant observations are also called qualitative research techniques. o They produce qualitative data that is often recorded in narrative form. • Qualitative Research Techniques o Involve the identification and exploration of a number of often

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Budget Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 19 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 19: Research Budget Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Identify the important points to be considered when starting to plan for data collection  Determine what resources are available and needed to carry out the research  Describe the activities of the research  Cost the research activities, materials and supplies required Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Objectives Identification of Important Points to be Presentation 2 15 minutes Considered when Starting to Plan for Data Buzzing Collection Presentation Determination of Resources Available and 3 10 minutes Brainstorming Needed to Carry Out the Research 4 25 minutes Presentation Activities of the Research 50 minutes Presentation Costing the Research Activities, Materials and 5 Group discussion Supplies Required 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 197 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Identification of Important Points to be Considered when Starting to Plan for Data Collection (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes:  What are the important points to be considered when starting to plan for data collection? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  The most important points to be considered when starting to plan for data collection: o It should be simple, realistic, and easily understood by those directly involved. o It should cover the preparatory and the implementation phases of the project, as well as data analysis, reporting, dissemination and utilization of results. o The activities covered should include training, technical or research tasks; administrative, secretarial and other support tasks. o The realities of local customs (local holidays, festivals) and working hours should be considered, when preparing the work plan. o Also, seasonal changes and their effect on travel, work habits, and on the topic you are studying (such as incidence of disease or nutritional status), should be kept in mind as the schedule is planned. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 198 STEP 3: Determination of Resources Available and Needed to Carry Out the Research (10 minutes) • Base on the work plan • Specify for each activity in the work plan, what resources and inputs are required • For each resource determine unit cost and, number of units to get the total cost STEP 4: The Activities of the Research (30 minutes) • Research activities include: o Finalize research proposal and submit to ethical committee for clearance o Translate questionnaires, typing, multiplying o Recruit research assistants o Obtain clearance and orient of DMOs, health institutions and village health workers o Train research assistants o Pre-test study o Collect data o Process data and make preliminary interpretation o Analyze data and write report o Disseminate and discuss research findings and preliminary recommendations with community members, health staff o Disseminate and discuss of research findings and preliminary recommendations with policymakers/managers/ others o Draft preliminary plan of action o Hold meetings with policy makers/managers/others to discuss plan of action for implementing recommendations o Follow up on implementation of plan of action STEP 5: Costing the Research Activities, Materials and Supplies Required (50 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (5 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • What research activities, materials and supplies required in the study need to be budgeted? ALLOW few students to respond ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 199 WRITE their responses on flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • Purpose of a Budget o A detailed budget will help to identify which resources are already locally available and which additional resources may be required. o The process of budget design will encourage you to consider aspects of the work plan you have not thought about before o Serve as a useful reminder of activities planned, as your research gets underway. • Budget Preparation o A complete budget is not prepared until the final stage of project planning.  Cost is usually a major limiting factor and therefore must always be kept in mind during planning so that your proposals will not have an unrealistically high budget. o Remember that both ministries and donor agencies usually set limits for research project o budgets. o The use of locally available resources increases the feasibility of the project from a financial point of view. • Categories for a Budget o Funds for personnel allowances for researchers, and assistants during training research assistants, field work piloting and actual study o Funds for secretarial services e.g. typing the proposal and questionnaires, final report and dissemination o Funds for transport number of visits and kilometers to be covered, funds for supplies. o Stationary and lunch for those attending FGD, meetings o 5% for emergency • Making Reasonable Estimates in a Budget o Do not underestimate the time needed to complete project tasks in ‗the real world‘. o Include a 5% emergency fund if you fear that you might have budgeted for the activities rather conservatively.

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Data Collection Plan Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 18 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 18: Data Collection Plan Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Describe problems that may arise during data collection and how they may be solved.  Prepare a plan for data collection for the developed research proposal  Determine the various tasks of the staff needed for research  Prepare a work schedule (GANTT chart)  Draw a work schedule (GANTT chart) Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 18.1: Example of a GANTT  Handout 18.2: Example of a work schedule SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 15 minutes Typical Problems that May Arise During Data Buzzing Collection and Solutions. 3 10 minutes Presentation Preparation of a Plan for Data Collection for the Developed Research Proposal Presentation 4 25 minutes Group Determination of Various Tasks of the Staff Needed for discussion Research 5 Presentation Preparation of a Work Schedule (GANTT Chart) 25 minutes 6 Presentation Drawing a Work Schedule (GANTT Chart) 25 minutes 7 05 minutes Presentation Key Points ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 182 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 9 05 minutes Presentation Assignment SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Typical Problems that May Arise During Data Collection and Solutions (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes ASK What problems may arise during data collection and their solutions ALLOWS few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Possible problems Sources of data distortion (bias) that might include: o Deviations from the sampling procedures set out in the proposal. o Variability or bias in observations or measurements made because  Research assistants are placed under too much stress  Inadequate supervision of research assistants.  Questionnaire not filled in completely • Solutions o Training research assistant o Pretest instrument o Adequate supervision of data collection o Revise method to check quality of data ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 183 o Prior anticipation of problems that might occur and prepare plan to overcome them STEP 3: Preparation of a Plan for Data Collection for the Developed Research Proposal (10 minutes) • A Plan for Data Collection o Listing the tasks that have to be carried out, and who should be involved, o Making a rough estimate of the time needed for the different parts of the study o Identifying the most appropriate period in which to carry out the research. o Scheduling the different activities that have to be carried out each week in a work plan. • Pre-Testing o Before the proposal development is finished, a pre-test of the data collection and data analysis procedures should be made. o The advantages of conducting a pre-test before the proposal is that we can draft the work plan and budget based on more realistic estimates, as well as revise the data collection tools before we submit the proposal for approval. o However, further pre-testing and planning of the research have to be done in the field. • Stages in the Data Collection Process o Stage 1: Permission to proceed o Stage 2: Data collection o Stage 3: Data handling • Stage 1: Permission to Proceed o Consent must be obtained from the relevant authorities, individuals and the community in which the project is to be carried out.  This may involve organizing meetings at national or provincial level, at district and at village level. o For clinical studies this may also involve obtaining written informed consent. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 184 o The principal investigator will be responsible for obtaining permission to proceed at the various levels. o The Health Research Unit in the Ministry of Health or the institution organizing the course may assist in obtaining permission from the national level. • Stage 2: Data Collection o During data collection consider:  Logistics: who will collect what, when and with what resources  Quality control (data must be reliable and valid) o When allocating tasks for data collection, it is recommended that first list type of data required. o Identify who could best implement each of the tasks.  If it is clear earlier that your research team will not be able to carry out the entire study by itself  Plan to look for research assistants to assist in relatively simple but time- consuming tasks. Consider the following: • Time for Data Collection o Think about how long will it take to collect data for each component of the Study?  The time required to reach the study area(s)  The time required locating the study units (persons, groups, records), search for specific informants (e.g., users or defaulters of a specific service)  It might take more time to locate informants than to interview them; consider the number of visits required per study unit. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 185 o Calculate the number of interviews that can be carried out per person per day (e.g. 4) o Calculate the number of days needed to carry out the interviews. For example: You need to do 200 interviews o Your research team of