PST06210 Operational Research

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Pre-Testing the Research Tools Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 17 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 17: Pre-Testing the Research Tools Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Define pretest and pilot study  Outline reasons for pretest  Describe the components of a pre-test  Plan and carry out pre-test of research components Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 17.1: Summary of points to assess during a pre-test or pilot study SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1. 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Definition of Pre-test and pilot study 2. 05 minutes Brainstorming Presentation Reasons for pretesting 3. 10 minutes Lecture discussion Presentation 4. 15 minutes Components of a Pre-Test and Pilot Study Buzzing 10 minutes Presentation 5. Planning and Carrying out Pre-Test of Research Buzzing Components 6. 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7. 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8. 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 173 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of a Pre-Test or Pilot Study (05 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (2 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions:  What are the components of pre-test tools or pilot study? ALLOWS few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  A pre-test o Refers to a small-scale trial of particular research components  A pilot study o is the process of carrying out a preliminary study, going through the entire research procedure with a small sample STEP 3: Reasons for Pre-Testing (10 minutes)  Help to identify potential problems in the proposed study.  Enables, if necessary, to revise the methods and logistics of data collection before starting the actual field works.  As a result, a good deal of time, effort and money can be saved.  Pre-testing is simpler and less time-consuming and costly than conducting an entire pilot study. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 174 STEP 4:Components of Pre-Testing (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) Ask students to buzz on the following question:  What are the components of pre-test? ALLOWS few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  The components of research to be pre-test include: o Reactions of the respondents to the research procedures o The data-collection tools o Sampling procedures o Staffing and activities of the research team o Procedures for data processing and analysis o The proposed work plan and budget for research activities  Reactions of the respondents to the research procedures o Availability of the study population o Study population daily work schedules o Acceptability of the methods used o Acceptability of the questions asked o willingness of the respondents to answer the question  The data-collection tools o Whether the tools can collect the information you need and whether they are reliable o How much time is needed to collect data o Whether there is any need to revise the format or presentation of interview guides/questionnaires e.g.  Sequencing  Wording  Translation  Space for answers  Sampling procedures o Instructions followed o Time need to locate respondents  Staffing and activities of the research team ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 175 o training o Logistics o team work  Procedures for data processing and analysis  work plan and budget for research activities STEP 4: Planning and Carrying Out Pre-Tests of Research Components (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What are the components of research that should be assessed during the pre-testing? ALLOW few students to respond WRITE their responses on flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Components of research to be assessed during the pre-testing • During training o The reactions o Appropriateness of study type(s) and research tools o Format and wording of questionnaires and interview schedules o Accuracy of the translations o The time o Sampling procedures Data processing and analysis. • Pre-test in the actual research area o What difficulties do you expect in the implementation of your proposal? o Inexperience with a certain data-collection technique o Which parts of your study will be most costly and time-consuming? • It is highly recommended that you analyse the data collected during the pre-test right away STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes) • A pre-test refers to a small-scale trial of particular research components ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 176 • A pilot study is the process of carrying out a preliminary study, going through the entire research procedure with a small sample • It is highly recommended that you the pre-test some components of your study STEP 6: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What is a pre-test? • What is pilot study? • What research components are to be pre-tested? STEP 7: Take Home Assignment (5 minutes) Activity: Take Home Assignment (5 minutes) DIVIDE students in groups or individuals ASK the students to work on the following Assignment • Identify what aspects of the study you would like to pre-test in your research area and why, with whom, when and where. • Summarize this information in one or two paragraphs in your research proposal. ALLOCATE

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Developing Research Tools Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 16 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 16: Developing Research Tools Total Session Time: 120 minutes+240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  List common research tools  Identify appropriate data-collection techniques  Prepare data-collection tools  Conduct out an interview Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 16.1: Overview of data collection techniques  Handout 16.2: Advantages and disadvantages of various data collection tools  Handout 16.3: Focus Group Discussion (FGD)  Handout 16.4: Functions of FGD Facilitator SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Common Research Tools 2 10 minutes Buzzing 3 10 minutes Presentation Identification of Data-Collection Techniques 4 45 minutes Presentation Preparation for Data-Collection Tools 35 minutes Presentation Conducting an Interview 5 Brainstorming 6 05 minutes Presentation Key points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 131 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 132 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Research Tools (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes:  What are common research tools? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • The quality of research depends on the quality of the data collection tools. The common tools used include questionnaire for interview and checklist • Interviewing and administering questionnaires are probably the most commonly used research techniques. • Designing good questioning and interviewing tools forms an important and time- consuming phase in the development of most research proposals. • The following questions should be considered before designing the tools o What exactly do we want to know, according to the objectives and variables we have? ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 133 o Is questioning the right technique to obtain all answers, or additional techniques, such as observations or analyses of records are needed? o Who to ask questions and what techniques will be used? o Do you understand the topic sufficiently to design a questionnaire, or o Do you need some loosely structured interviews with key informants or a focus group discussion first to orientate ourselves? o Are your informants mainly literate or illiterate? o How large is the sample that will be interviewed? • Before examining the steps in designing a questionnaire, review the types of questions used in interviews. • Depending on how questions are asked and recorded distinguish two major possibilities: o Open-ended questions, (allowing for completely open as well as partially categorized answers). o Closed questions. • Completely Open-Ended Questions o Open-Ended Questions permit free responses which should be recorded in the respondents’ own words. o Open questions are useful for obtaining in-depth information on  Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar.  Opinions, attitudes and suggestions of informants, or Sensitive issues. • Advantages of Completely Open-Ended Questions ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 134 o Allow you to probe more deeply into issues of interest being raised. o Issues not previously thought of when planning the study may be explored, thus providing valuable new insights on the problem. o Information provided in the respondents’ own words might be useful as examples or illustrations, which add interest to the final report. • Risks of Completely Open-Ended Questions o Skilled interviewers are needed to get the discussion started and focused on relevant issues and to record all information collected. o A big risk is incomplete recording of all relevant issues covered in the discussion. o Analysis is time-consuming and requires experience; otherwise important data may be Lost • Suggestions to Improve Use of Completely Open-Ended Questions o Thoroughly train and supervise the interviewers or select experienced research assistants. o Prepare a list of further questions to keep at hand to use to probe for answer(s) in a systematic way. o Pre-test open-ended questions and, if possible, pre-categorize the most common responses • Partially Categorized Questions o In interviews questions are often asked as open-ended questions, but to facilitate ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 135 recording and analysis, some answers can be pre-categorized. For example: ‘How did you become a member of the Village Health Committee?’ Details stated: 1. Volunteered…………………………………………………………………………….. � 2. Elected at a community meeting…………………………………………………. � 3. Nominated by community leaders…………………………………………………� 4. Nominated by the health staff……………………………………………………… � 5. Other (specify): …………………………………………………………………………………………..� In this case the first four categories of answers are known, but there may be other possibilities. Therefore, there is a category ‘other’ where other answers can be recorded. During the analysis, these responses can still be further categorized. o For open-ended questions, more than one answer is usually allowed. • Advantages of Pre-Categorized Answers o Answers can be recorded quickly o Analysis is easier • Risks of Pre-Categorized Answers o If one pre-categorizes too early, a lot of interesting and valuable information may never be recorded or may end up in the category ‘other’. o Interviewers may try to force the information into the categories that are listed and, by merely ticking, this additional valuable information will be lost. o Interviewers may stop after receiving the first answer, whereas more than

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Ethics Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 15 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 15: Research Ethics Total Session Time: 60 minutes +240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Define research ethics  Identify areas of research requiring ethical clearance  Describe procedure for research ethical clearance Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 2 10 minutes Presentation Definition of Research Ethics 10 minutes Presentation Areas of research requiring ethical clearance 3 Buzzing 20 minutes Presentation Procedure for Research Ethical Clearance 4 Brainstorming 5 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 7 05 Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 124 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Research Ethics (10 Minutes)  Research ethics o Research Ethics is defined here to be the ethics of the planning, conducting, and reporting of research o It is clear that research ethics should include: Protections of human and animal subjects. o ―"ethics": is defined as norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior‖.  STEP 3: Identification of areas of research requiring ethical clearance (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  ‘Which areas of research require ethical clearance? ALLOW few students to respond WRITE their responses on flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • In developing data collection techniques, it is important to consider whether the research procedures are likely to cause any physical or emotional harm. • Harm may be caused, by: o Violating informants‘ right to privacy, by posing sensitive questions or by gaining access to records which may contain personal data. o Observing the behavior of informants without them being aware o Allowing personal information (which informants would want to be kept private) to ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 125 be made public. o Failing to observe/respect certain cultural values, traditions or taboos valued by your informants. Using human biological tissue, using human in trial of drugs. • Several methods for dealing with ethical issues are recommended: o Obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview begins. o Do not explore sensitive issues before a good relationship has been established with the informant. o Ensure the confidentiality of the data obtained. Learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is respected during the o data collection process. If sensitive questions are asked, for example, about family planning or sexual practices, or about opinions of patients on the health services provided, it is advisable to omit names and addresses from the questionnaires. o Inform participants that they are free to withdraw from the study at any point STEP 4: Procedure for Research Ethical Clearance (20 Minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • ‘What are procedures for research ethical clearance? ALLOW few students to respond WRITE their responses on flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Health research coordination in Tanzania is under the Medical Research Coordinating Committee (MRCC). MRCC is the national health research coordinating body that ensures all health research follows the national health ethics requirements.  Procedure for research ethical clearance o The whole process of receiving, reviewing and approving the protocols takes a maximum of 6 weeks o National Health Research Ethics Committee (NatHREC) carries research monitoring by on-site visits in collaboration with district and regional medical authorities. In this regard, copies of certificates of cleared research proposals are sent to respective District and Regional Medical Officers where research is to be carried out. o Research certificate approval is renewed annually, and PIs are required to submit progress reports biannually. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 126 o To publish the findings, the principal investigator will have to seek permission from the National Institute for Medical Research. o All proposed health research in Tanzania must get an Institutional Ethical approval at the host institution where the research will be based. o In case there is no any Institutional Ethics Committee, the approval will be sought from the NatHREC. o For all health research involving external collaborators (non-Tanzanians), the researchers must apply for the Institutional Ethical Clearance as well as the National Ethics Clearance. o Non-Tanzanian researchers are required by law to get Research Clearance and Research Permit from the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) (www.costech.or.tz). o Protocols for Clinical trials to be conducted in Tanzania are reviewed by another specialized sub-committee, Clinical Trials Sub-Committee.  This sub-committee has nine members and meets monthly and reports to the NatHREC. o Clinical trials are required to also obtain a Clinical Trials Certificate from Tanzania Food and Drug Authority (www.tfda.or.tz) before the commencement of the study.  Application procedures o Applicants for research clearance are required to submit application form, Curriculum vitae, Research proposal and three passport size photographs preferably two months before commencement of research. o Permits are given for a period of one year and can be renewed for similar period provided satisfactory progress reports for the previous periods are received by COSTECH. o If and when these formalities have been satisfactorily completed (which may take several months) applicant will receive a formal written offer of a research

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Basic Statistical Concepts Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 1 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 1: Basic Statistical Concepts Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define common terms used in biostatistics • Explain the importance of different measures in statistics • Explain the application of statistics in data analysis Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 5 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 30 minutes Presentation 2 Definitions of common terms in Biostatistics Brainstorm 45minutes Presentation Importance of Different Measures in 3 Buzzing Statistics 30minutes Presentation 4 Application of Statistics in Data Analysis Brainstorming 5 05minutes Presentation Key Points 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 1 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of common terms in Biostatistics (30 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What is biostatistics? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Biostatistics can be defined as the application of statistics to biological problems. • Many biomedical scientists consider it to mean the application of statistics specifically to medical problems. • For this group of people, therefore, biostatistics and medical statistics are synonymous Other terms: • Statistics can be defined in two forms: o First ―statistics‖ as a ―noun‖ means a descriptive measure computed from data of a sample i.e. numerical statement – information that is available in numbers). Examples of this include:  Hospital data on the number of admissions for some condition in a period  How much drug (e.g. Amoxicillin capsules) is distributed to health units – hospitals, health centers and dispensaries  This first part of the subject is usually referred to as descriptive statistics o Secondly ―statistics‖ as a ―discipline‖ is a field of study concerned with:  Collecting, organizing and summarizing and analysis of data in a systematic way.  Drawing of inferences about a population on the basis of only a part of the population targeted.  This second part, which, provides objective means of drawing conclusions, constitutes inferential statistics ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 2 • Population o A collection of entities. o A statistical population means the largest collection of entities in which we have an interest. o Example we may be interested in looking at how may health facilities are given Amoxil in district X? • Sample o Part of a population. o Example number of health centers given Amoxil capsules. • Central tendency o Measures of central tendency provide a summary measure that attempts to describe data with a single value that represents the middle or center of its distribution. o There are three main measures of central tendency:  the mean,  median and  mode Mean, arithmetic mean (X or M): • The mean of a data set is also known as the average value • The sum of the scores in a distribution divided by the number of scores in the distribution. It is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. • It is often reported with its companion statistic, the standard deviation, which shows how far things vary from the average. Median (Mdn): • The midpoint or number in a distribution having 50% of the scores above it and 50% of the scores below it. • The median of a data set is the value that is at the middle of a data set arranged from smallest to largest • If there are an odd number of scores, the median is the middle score. Mode (Mo): • The number that occurs most frequently in a distribution of scores or numbers • The mode is the most common observation of a data set, or the value in the data set that occurs most frequently. Quartile • A measure of statistical dispersion which divides a frequency distribution into equal groups each containing the same fraction of the total population • The first quartile (designated Q1) is the lower and cuts off the lowest 25% of data (the 25th percentile) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 3 • The second quartile (Q2), or the median, cuts the data set in half (the 50th percentile) • The third quartile (Q3) cuts off highest 25% of data, or the lowest 75% (the 75th percentile) Variations • Range (Ra): The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution; a measure of variability. • Standard deviation (SD): The most stable measure of variability, it takes into account each and every score in a normal distribution. This descriptive statistic assesses how far individual scores vary in standard unit lengths from its midpoint of 0. For all normal distributions, 95% of the area is within 1.96 standard deviations of the mean. • Variance (SD2): A measure of the dispersion of a set of data points around their mean value. It is a mathematical expectation of the average squared deviations from the mean. STEP 3: Importance of Measures in Statistics (45 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following questions for 2 minutes • What are the importance of different measures in statistics ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Sampling Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 13 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 13: Research Sampling Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Define the common terms used in sampling  Identify the population(s) to be studied  Describe common methods of sampling  Explain reasons for sampling  Describe source of bias in sampling that should be avoided Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 13.1: Types of sampling methods and when to use it SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 2 20 minutes Presentation Definition of the Common Terms Used in Sampling 20 minutes Presentation Identification of the Population(s) to be Studied 3 Buzzing 35 minutes Presentation 4 Group Common Methods of Sampling discussion 5 10 minutes Presentation Reasons for Sampling 6 15 minutes Presentation Source of Bias in Sampling that Should be Avoided 7 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 104 9 05 minutes Presentation Assignment SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Common Terms Used in Sampling (20 minutes) • Sampling: Process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study population. o For studies which involve only small numbers of people all of them can be included in the investigation. o For research which focuses on a large population, for practical reasons, it is only possible to include some of its members in the investigation. It is important to draw a sample from the total population.  Sampling unit o A single section selected to research and gather statistics of the whole. o For example, when studying a group of college students, a single student could be a sampling unit. o Unit of selection in the sampling process, e.g. Person, a school, a household, etc.  Sampling frame o a list of units from which a sample is to be picked  Sampling fraction (sampling ratio) o a proportion of sampling units to be picked from a specified sampling frame = number units in a sample number of units in sampling frame  Sampling interval o An interval at which units are picked from a sampling frame when systematic sampling is done. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 105 STEP 3: Identifying the Population (s) to be Studied (20 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  ‘What is study population? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Study population o Collective of study units for which the values of the varieties of interest could possibly be determined. o In identifying the population(s) to be studied we must consider the following questions:  What is the group of people (STUDY POPULATION) we are interested in from which we want to draw a sample?  How many people do we need in our sample?  How will these people be selected?  Sample is a subset of study population selected to participate in the research when whole study population cannot be reached o The study population has to be clearly defined (for example, according to age, sex, and residence.) Otherwise we cannot do the sampling o Each study population consists of STUDY UNITS. The way we define our study population and our study unit depends on the problem we want to investigate and on the objectives of the study • Representativeness o If researchers want to draw conclusions which are valid for the whole study population, which requires a quantitative study design, they should take care to draw a sample in such a way that it is representative of that population. o A representative sample has all the important characteristics of the population from which it is drawn ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 106 Figure 1: Relationship between population and sample STEP 4: Common Methods of Sampling (35 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • What are the common methods of sampling? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below  The common methods of sampling are:  Two types of sampling probability and non-probability o Non-probability o Probability (random sampling) • Probability Sampling (Quantitative Data) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 107 o Involves using random selection procedures, to ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen on the basis of chance. o All units of the study population should have an equal, or at least a known chance of being included in the sample. o Requires listing of all study units exist or can be compiled. This listing is called the sampling frame. • Types of random or probability sampling o Simple random sampling o Systematic sampling o Stratified sampling o Cluster sampling o Multistage sampling • Simple Random Sampling To select a simple random sample, you need to: o Make or search for an existing numbered list of all the units in the population from which you want

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Review of Study Types/Designs Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 12 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 12: Review of Study Types/Designs Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe the study types most used in research • Explain uses and limitation of each study type most used in research • Describe how the study design can influence the validity and reliability of the study result • Identify the most appropriate study design for research proposal being developed Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation 2 40 minutes Study Types Most Used in Research Brainstorming Presentation Uses and Limitation of Study Types most Used in 3 35 minutes Buzzing Research 4 15 minutes Presentation Influence of Study Design on the Validity and Reliability of the Study Result 10 minutes Presentation 5 Identification of the Most Appropriate Study Design for Research Proposal being developed 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 98 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Study Types Most Used in Research (10 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:  What study types are mostly used in research? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below REFER SESSION 6 STEP 3: Uses and Limitation of Each Study Type Most Used in Research (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • ‘What are the uses and limitation of each study type most used in research? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content in SESSION 6 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 99 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 100 STEP 4: Influence of Study Design on the Validity and Reliability of the Study Result (15 minutes) • Validity: means that your scientific observations actually measure what they intend to measure (your conclusions are true). o Internal validity: Difference in the dependent variable is actually a result of the o independent variable. o External validity: Results of the study are generalizable to other groups and environments outside the experimental setting. • Reliability: means that someone else using the same method in the same circumstances should be able to obtain the same findings (your findings are repeatable). o Reliability (repeatability) refers to the possibility to replicate (repeat) the observations and is related to the precision of the instrument used for scientific observations. o Validity refers to the soundness of the observations and to the accurateness of the data collected by the research method/instrument. STEP 5: Identification of the Most Appropriate Study Design for Research (10 Minutes)  Consider: o Nature of the problem/topic o State of knowledge about the problem/topic o Resources available o Skills of the researcher STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes)  A descriptive study involves describing the characteristics of a particular situation, event or case ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 101  An analytical study attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems  Any study designs used, should give valid and reliable findings STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes)  What study types are most used in research?  What will you consider when selecting study design for research proposal? STEP 8: Assignment (5 minutes) Activity: Take Home Individual Assignment (5 minutes) ASK each student to select an appropriate study type/design for a research proposal being developed ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignment and submit REFER students to recommended reference ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 102 References Hardon A, Boonmongkon P, and Streefland P. et al (2001). Applied Health research, Anthropology of health and health care, (3rd Ed) Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Het Spinhuis Publishers Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology: Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, Kothari C.R (1985). Research Methodology – Methods and techniques, (2nd ed); New Delhi, India; Wiley Eastern Limited Stewart A (2001). Basic Statistics and epidemiology, A practical guide,; London, United Kingdom: Radcliffe Medical Press, Varkevisser, C. M, Pathmanathan, I and Brownlee, A (1991). Designing and Conducting Health Systems Research Projects, Vol. 2 Part I: Ottawa, Canada: IDRC ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 103 ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Operational Research topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Research Objectives and Questions Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 11 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 11: Research Objectives and Questions Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define general and specific objectives • Outline the characteristics of research objectives • State the difference between general and specific objectives • Prepare research objectives in an appropriate format for the project you are developing • Develop research questions appropriate for the study Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector • Handout 11.1: Broad and Specific Objectives SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 10 minutes Presentation 2 Definition of General and Specific Objectives Brainstorming 10 minutes Presentation 3 Characteristics of Research Objectives Brainstorming Presentation 4 20 minutes The Difference Between General and Specific Buzzing Objectives 35 minutes Presentation 5 Preparation of Research Objectives Lecture discussion 6 Development of Research Questions 25 minutes Presentation 05 minutes 7 Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 88 9 05 minutes Presentation Assignment SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of General and Specific Objectives (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following questions for 2 minutes • What is an objective? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Research studies should include a statement of o Broad objective o Specific objectives o Hypotheses (except in the case of purely exploratory or descriptive studies) • Objectives: Summary of what is intended to be achieved by the study.  General objective also known as Broad objective o The objective of a research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study. o The general objective of a study states what is expected to be achieved by the study in general terms. o It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as specific objectives. o Related to core problem o Shows target population and place o Use action verb o Normally only one per study  Specific objectives o Explain the broad objective in specific o Should systematically address:  The various aspects of the problem‘ ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 89  Key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.  They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.  Usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem • Hypothesis o Statement/a specific prediction about the nature and expected direction of the relationship between two or more variables that permit empirical testing. • Why should research objectives be developed? o To clarify and focus your intentions /focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials). o To have a basis for measuring your achievements at the end of the study. o To avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem, you have identified. o To organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. o To facilitate the development of your research methodology and orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 90 STEP 3: Characteristics of Research Objectives (10 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (3 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • What are characteristics of research objectives? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Objectives must be SMART. o S = Specific: Specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose. o M= Measurable: Can be evaluated. o A = Action oriented. o R = Realistic: Considering local conditions can be done. o T = Time bound: When exactly will the activities be carried out? Pharmaceutical services dispensaries, then the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons for this low utilization pharmaceutical services dispensaries in Mongoro district, in order to find solutions. • Formulating Specific Objectives o Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under 'Statement of the Problem‘ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. o They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose. • The first specific objective usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem. • It may be helpful to use the diagram as a point of departure and check whether the problem and all major, directly contributing factors (analytic study) or major components (descriptive or evaluation study) have been covered by the objectives. • An objective indicating how the results will be used should be included in every operational study, either as part of the general objective or as a specific objective. Refer students to Handout 11.1: Broad and Specific Objectives ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 91 • How to State Objectives o It should cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence. o Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Literature Review in Research Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 10 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 10: Literature Review in Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes Assignment Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe the reasons for reviewing available literature • Identify the resources that are available for carrying out such a review • Prepare index cards for summarization of important information obtained from literature • Prepare a review of literature pertaining to research topic Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method Introduction, Learning Tasks 1 05 minutes Presentation Presentation 2 15 minutes Reasons for Reviewing Available Literature Buzzing Presentation Identification of Resources that are Available 3 10 minutes Brainstorming for Carrying out Literature Review. Presentation Summarizing Important Information Obtained 4 55 minutes Lecture discussion from Index Cards 5 20 minutes Presentation Review of Literature Pertaining to Research Topic 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Individual Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 80 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Reasons for Reviewing Available Literature (15 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (5 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question  What are the reasons for reviewing literature? ALLOW students to discuss for 2 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • A literature review is the reading of the work of others before starting your research and doing a summary about previous studies on the topic. • A literature review provides a helpful guide to a topic. • The focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions. • A researcher needs to find out what has been done already, and build on that foundation, because scientific research is cumulative. o This involves determining what has been done and what still needs to be done, and examining what books and professional journals have already revealed in your area or country, or in other areas/countries with similar problems/context. • It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before. • It helps you to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem you want to study. This may assist you in refining your statement of the problem. • It helps you to become more familiar with the various research approaches that might be used in your study. • It should provide you with convincing arguments for why your particular research project is needed. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 81 STEP 3: Identification of Resources that are Available for Carrying Out Literature Review (10 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • ‘What are the resources available for carrying out literature review? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Resources that are available for carrying out literature review include: o People (individuals or groups, organizations) o Publications (books which compile research information, journals (hard or electronic copies) o Unpublished information [grey literature) e.g. Dissertation, research reports not in journals, computer data base o Supervisors and fellow students  Sources could be at different levels of administrative system o Community level, district and regional levels and provincial level o National levels – e.g. national libraries, Ministries of Health, central statistics, etc. o International levels – UNICEF, WHO, USAID, etc.; including computerized search for international literature ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 82 Sources of Information at Various Levels of Administrative System SN Administrative level Example of resource 1 • Opinions, beliefs of key informants (through Community and district interviews), in addition to written sources or provincial levels • Clinic- and hospital- based data from routine statistics, registers • Clinical observations, reports of critical incidents • Local surveys, annual service reports • Statistics issued at provincial and district levels • Newspapers, books, articles, mimeographed reports, etc. 2. National Level • Articles from national journals, books identified during literature searches at university and other national libraries, WHO, UNICEF libraries, etc. • Special collections, e.g., newspaper clippings, archival records, library or congress collections • Documentation, reports and raw data from: The Ministry of Health (e.g., 5-year plans) central statistical offices Non-governmental organizations • Information from: 3. International level • Bilateral and multilateral organisations (e.g., IDRC, USAID, UNICEF, WHO); • Computerised searches for international literature (from national library or international institutions). ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 83 STEP 4: Summarizing Important Information Obtained from Index Cards (55 minutes)  Strategy 1: What to do with identified information o Read through o Summarize the content relevant to your study (use index card) Note pertinent information  Title of article  Author  Title of Journal/Book, Page, Year, etc (see later)  Aim of study  Methodology  Major findings  Utility of information  Write the literature review section  Prepare list of references  Strategy 2: What to do with identified information o Organize in groups of related information/themes o Sequence the information – from far to near (for each theme) e.g.

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Analysis and Statement of the Problem Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 9 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 9: Analysis and Statement of the Problem Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Identify factors contributed to the problem.  Clarify the relationship between the problem and contributing factors.  Decide on the scope and focus of the research  Formulate the problem statement Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 9.1: Formulating the Problem Statement  Handout 9.2: Sample Problem Analysis Diagram SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Factors Contributed to the Problem. 2 30 minutes Group discussion Presentation Relationship Between the Problem and 3 15 minutes Contributing Factors. Brainstorming 4 10 minutes Presentation The Scope and Focus of the Research 45minutes Presentation Formulation of the Problem Statement 5 Group discussion 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 69 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 70 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Factors Contributed to the Problem (30 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question  ‘What are the factors contributed to the problem you have selected? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below Analyzing the problem is a very crucial step in designing the research because it:  Enables those concerned to pool their knowledge of the problem  Clarifies the problem and the possible factors that may be contributing to it  Facilitates decisions concerning the focus and scope of the research  The factors contributed to the problem o You have to specify and describe the core problem you selected after prioritization  Quantify the selected problem. After identifying the core problem, you should: o Identify factors that may have contributed to the problem. o Clarify the relationship between the problem and contributing factors o It is helpful to visualize these inter relationships in the form of a diagram. o The basic principles of constructing such a diagram are illustrated below ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 71  Identify further contributing factors. o Extend the problem analysis diagram further by identifying additional factors that could have contributed to or aggravated the problem. o It may be possible to identify several ‗generations‘ of predisposing factors, by asking ‗but why‘  Organise related factors together into larger categories and develop final draft diagram. For example o Many researchers group contributing factors into four main categories:  Socio-cultural factors  Economic factors  Service-related factors  Disease-related factors STEP 3: Relationship Between the Problem and Contributing Factors (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes  What is the relationship between the problem and contributing factors? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  The relationships between contributing factors and the problem can be indicated by arrows o One-way arrow (for cause-effect relationships) or ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 72 o Two-way arrows (for mutual relationships)  The core problem can be identified by drawing a double line around it STEP 4: The Scope and Focus of the Research (10 minutes)  Scoping is figuring out what, exactly, to explore for a study  Decide on the focus and scope of the research  Not necessary to research on all factors if too many STEP 5: Formulation of the Problem Statement (45 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (25 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to formulate statement of the problem they have selected from prioritization ALLOW them to discuss for 15 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below What information should be included in the statement of the problem? • A brief description of socio-economic and cultural characteristics and an overview of health status and the health-care system in the country/district in as far as these are relevant to the problem. Include a few illustrative statistics, if available, to help describe the context in which the problem occurs. • A concise description of the nature of the problem (the discrepancy between what is and what should be) and of the size, distribution and severity of the problem (who is affected, where, since when, and what are the consequences for those affected and for the services). For a descriptive study you will elaborate the different components of the problem. • An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a discussion of why certain factors need more investigation if the problem is to be fully understood. • A brief description of any solutions to the problem that have been tried in the past, how well they have worked, and why further research is needed (justification for your study). • A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how this information will be

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Identification of Research Problem Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 8 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 8: Identification of Research Problem Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 240 minutes of Individual Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define research problem • Identify research problems • Outline conditions for a problem to be researchable • Explain criteria for selecting a research topic • Explain how to prioritize topic for research Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector  Handout 8.1: Research Problem Identification  Handout 8.2: Examples of Research and Non-Research Problems  Handout 8.3: Prioritizing Health Problems for Operational Research SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Definition of research problem 2 05 minutes Brainstorming Presentation Identification of research problem 3 30 minutes Buzzing Presentation Conditions for a problem to be researchable 4 10 minutes Presentation Criteria for selecting a research problem 5 55 minutes Small group discussion 6 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation 8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment: Identification and selection of ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 55 problem for research proposal ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 56 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Research Problem (5 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (3 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:  What is a research problem? ALLOW few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below  Identification and formulation of research problem is the first step of research process  A research problem is: o a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, o a condition to be improved upon, o a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. o A question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem to be solved ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 57 STEP 3: Identification of Problems for Research (30 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What methods can you use to identify problems for research in your profession? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their responses on the flip chart/whiteboard CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Research problems can be identified through: • Personal experiences • Practical experiences • Review of records/reports • Critical appraisal of literature • Previous research • Existing theories • Consumer/user feedback • Performance improvement • Social issues • Management meetings • Brainstorming STEP 4: Conditions for a problem to be researchable (10 minutes) Whether a problem situation requires research depends on three conditions: • There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy between what exists and the ideal or planned situation • The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so that it makes sense to develop research questions) • There should be more than one possible answer to a question or more than one solution to the problem. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 58 STEP 5: Criteria for Selecting Health-Related Problems to be Given Priority in Research (55 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • ‘What are criteria for selecting health – related problems? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below • When there are many potential topics for research, a decision should be made to select one, which is of high priority • To do so, we need to compare the topics using some criteria. • The following are useful criteria: o Relevance o Avoidance of duplication o Urgency of data (timeliness) o Political acceptability of study o Feasibility of study o Applicability of results o Ethical acceptability • Each criterion has the rating scale to enable one to decide which problem to select. The following are the criteria and their rating scales • Relevance o the topic should be relevant o How large or widespread is the problem? o Who is affected? o How severe is the problem? Rating scale (scores) 1 = Not relevant 2 = Relevant 3 = Very relevant ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 59 • Avoidance of duplication We should avoid duplicating what is already well established o Check literature to see if the topic has been researched in the same area or elsewhere. o If so, ask whether there are issues that remain to be investigated Rating scale (scores) 1= Sufficient information available 2 = Some information available but major issues not covered 3 = No sound information available • Urgency of data (timeliness) o How urgently are the results needed? o Consider which research should be done first and which can be done later Rating scale (scores) 1= Information not urgently needed 2 = Information could be used right away but a delay of some months would be acceptable 3 = Information very urgently needed for use • Political acceptability of study Is the topic supported by the local/national