Classification of Research
Session 6: Classification of Research
Total Session Time: 120 minutes
Prerequisites
None
Learning Tasks
By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:
Identify classes of research
Describe study designs for classes of research identified
Explain the uses and limitations of each study design
Identify the most appropriate study design for the research proposal you are developing
Resources Needed
Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
Computer and LCD Projector
SESSION OVERVIEW
Activity/
Step Time Content
Method
1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks
Presentation Classes of research
2 15 minutes
Brainstorming
Presentation Study designs
3 40 minutes
Buzzing
3 30 minutes Presentation Uses and Limitations of each Study design
Buzzing
4 20 minutes Presentation Appropriate Study design for the Research Proposal
5 05 minutes Presentation Key Points
6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation
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SESSION CONTENTS
STEP1 Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes):
READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify
ASK students if they have any questions before continuing
STEP 2: Study Types Most Used in Research (35 minutes)
Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes)
Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions:
ALLOW few students to respond?
WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board
CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below
Research can be classified into several categories according to the nature and purpose of the
study and other attributes.
o Applied research which is also referred to as an action research,
o Basic research also called fundamental or pure research.
Descriptive, analytical and Experimental studies or interventional studies
o Descriptive research usually involves surveys and studies that aim to identify the
facts.
o In other words, it deals with the ―description of the state of affairs as it is at present‖,
and there is no control over variables in descriptive research.
o Observational or Analytical research uses facts or information already available and
analyze these in order to make a critical evaluation of the material‖.
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o Experimental or interventional studies are ones where researchers introduce an
intervention and study the effects. Experimental studies are usually randomized,
meaning the subjects are grouped by chance. Randomized controlled trial (RCT):
Eligible people are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups.
o Two groups; Exploratory and Conclusive.
o Exploratory studies only aim to explore the research area and they do not attempt to
offer final and conclusive answers to research questions.
o Conclusive studies, on the contrary, aim to provide final and conclusive answers to
research questions.
o Quantitative or qualitative
STEP 3: Uses and Limitations of Each Study Type (40 minutes)
Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)
ASK students to, select one study type then pair up and buzz on the following question for 2
minutes
ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned
WRITE their response on the flip chart/board
CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below
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PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 39
Uses
o Basic research aims to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or
prediction of natural or other phenomena.
o Applied research, in turn, uses scientific theories to develop technology or techniques
to intervene and alter natural or other phenomena.
o Though often driven by curiosity, basic research fuels applied science's innovations.
Limitations
o Does not usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical
level.
o Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in
specific research area
Uses
o Operations research is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced
analytical methods to help make better decisions.
o It uses scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a practical or
useful result
o Uses knowledge and skills in creative ways to solve complex problems and have an
impact on critical decisions
Limitations
o Costly: Operation Research (OR) is very costly.
o Not realistic: Operation Research experts make very complex models for solving
problems. These models may not be realistic
o Complex: Operation Research is a complex concept
Uses
o Provides statistical, mathematical, or numerical results
o Tends to analyze phenomena in terms of trends and frequencies
o Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
o It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
o Quantitative research is inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a theory,
measured with numbers, and analyzed using statistical techniques.
o The goal of quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive
generalizations of a theory hold true.
Limitations
o Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher
o More easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies.
o Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate
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Uses
o Can provide full picture of answers and reasons behind them(ethnographic)
o Can be used to inform answers to social issues
o Find ways to improve qualitative things like customers satisfaction, health
professional's opinions
o It aims to develop concepts that aid in the understanding of natural phenomena with
emphasis on the meaning, experiences and views of the students
Limitations
o Time consuming process
o Labour intensive approach in sorting, coding data etc
o Observer may be biased when interpreting
o Not easy to make comparison
o No result verification in qualitative research
Uses
o It is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, which is carried out when little is
known about a situation or a problem.
o It may include description as well as comparison.
o Used for Small scale studies
o Gathers information about unfamiliar phenomenon
o Results give insight to a problem before a large-scale study is designed
Limitations
o Interpretation of findings is judgmental
o Uses small samples which may not be representative
Uses
o involves describing the characteristics of a particular situation, event or case
o Can be carried out on a small or large scale
o Small scale, descriptive case studies
o provide quite useful insight into a problem
o Less expensive
village
Analytical
Uses
o An analytical study attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems.
o Is done by comparing two or more groups some of which have or develop the
problem and some of which have not
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PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 41
o Describe phenomena, and
o Analyze relationship between phenomena and other variables
(determinants/association
Limitations
o Only describe phenomena: e.g. Person, Place, Time
o Low response rate
Comparative or analytical studies
An analytical study attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems. It
compares two or more groups, some of which have or develop the problem and some of
which have not It uses Cross-sectional comparative studies, Case-control studies and
Cohort studies
Analytical studies
Cross-sectional studies
Uses
o Quick and cheap
o Can reveal various exposures, as first step in investigating the cause
o Repeated measures can depict(represent) trend
o Data useful in assessing health care needs
Limitation
o Not possible to determine if the exposure preceded the outcome
Cross-sectional comparative studies
Uses
o Aim at describing phenomenon and compare groups or determine factors influencing
the phenomenon
o Done at one point in time
o Measurement of exposure and effect are done at the same time
o Quick and cheap,
o Can elucidate various exposures, as first step in investigating cause,
o Repeated measures can depict trend,
o Produce data useful in assessing health care needs
Limitations
o Not possible to determine if the exposure preceded the outcome (temporal
relationship)
Case-control studies
In a case-control study the investigator compares one group among whom the problem
that he wishes to investigate is present (e.g. adverse drug reactions) and another group
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called a control or comparison group, where the problem is absent, in order to find out
what factors have contributed to the problem
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Uses
o Useful for generating/ test hypothesis
o Cheap and quick
o Makes use of comparison (control group)
o Can study more than one risk factor
o Useful for rare disease or long latent period
Limitations
o Data on exposure might be inaccurate and biased
o Difficult to make precise selection of control group
o Retrospective – cannot separate cause and effect
o Cannot be used for rare exposure
o You cannot calculate incidence (you do not know when disease occurred
o In a cohort study, a group of individuals that is exposed to a risk factor (study group)
is compared to a group of individuals not exposed to the risk factor (control group)
o Aim at determining risk factors for diseases/outcome
o At the start identify two groups
With exposure to a risk factor (exposed)
Without exposure (no-n exposed)
Both groups have not developed the disease/outcome at the start
Follow over time
At the end, analyses disease/outcome occurrence in both groups and compare
Limitations
o Needs to get complete and accurate information about exposure and outcome for all
individuals
o Time consuming, expensive
o Inefficient in evaluating rare diseases
o Loss of follow up affect validity of results
STEP 4: Appropriate Study Type for the Research Proposal (20 minutes)
Depending on the existing state of knowledge about a problem that is being studied, different
types of questions may be asked which require different study designs. Some examples are
given in the following matrix.
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State of knowledge Type of research Type of study
of the problem Questions
exists but knowing little magnitude of the Descriptive studies:
about its characteristics problem?
or possible causes • Who is affected? • Descriptive case studies
How do the affected
people behave?
What do they know,
believe, and think about
the problem and its
causes?
factors contribute to the indeed studies
problem associated with the • Cross-sectional
problem? comparative studies
school education related
to low school • Cohort studies
performance? Is low
fibre diet related to
carcinoma of the large
intestine?)
certain factors are problem? • Experimental or quasi-
associated with the experimental studies
problem: desiring to • Will the removal of a
establish the extent to particular factor prevent
which a particular factor or reduce the problem
causes or contributes to (e.g., stopping smoking,
the problem. providing safe water)
knowledge about cause(s) particular experimental studies
to develop and assess an intervention/strategy
intervention which would (e.g., treating with a
prevent, control or solve particular drug; being
the problem. exposed to a certain type
of health education)
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PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 45
strategies gives better
results? Which strategy
is most cost-effective?
Source: Varkevisser et al: Designing and Conducting Health Systems Research Projects, Vol. 2 Part I.
o The type of problem,
o The knowledge already available about the problem
o Resources available for the study
STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes)
(operational) research, quantitative research, and Qualitative research
different types of questions may be asked which require different study designs
STEP 6: Evaluation (5 minutes)
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PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 46
References
References
Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., Williams, T.A., Freeman, J. & Shoesmith, E. (2007).
Basic Statistics and epidemiology (2001). A practical guide, Radcliffe Medical Press,
United Kingdom
Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology, World Health
Organization, Geneva
Kazaura, M. R., Makwaya, C. K., Masanja, C. M. and Mpembeni, R.C. (1997). Lecture notesin
Biostatistics, manual of biostatistics: Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences,
Dar es Salaam
Polit, D. F and Beck, C. T (2004) Nursing Research – Principles and Methods, (7th Ed):
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Rao, J. S., & Richard, J. (2002). An introduction to biostatistics-a manual for students in
helthsciences (3rd. Ed): New Delhi, India: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd
Rosner B (2010): Fundamental of Biostatistics (7th Ed.): Boston, USA: Cengage Learning
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PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 47
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