NTA Level 4 Semester One

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Equipment Cleaning CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Equipment Cleaning using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Learning Objectives Staff safety: To prevent contaminations of technicians with machines. X-Ray Machines Approved Cleaning Agents: Hospital-grade disinfectants, alcohol wipes. Step 1: Wear appropriate PPE before handling equipment. X-Ray Machines: Focus on the tube head, control panels, and patient positioning surfaces. Daily: High-touch surfaces and patient contact areas after each use. Checklist Completion & Reporting Issues : Approved Cleaning Agents: Hospital-grade disinfectants, isopropyl alcohol wipes. Wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE) including masks, gloves, and eye protection when cleaning/disinfecting equipment. Radiology Standard Operating Procedures(SOPs) for Equipment Cleaning Learning Objectives Students should understand the standardized cleaning procedures and protocols commonly used to clean radiology equipment's. Students should be able to explain the Importance of cleanliness in radiology. Students should be able to perform equipment cleaning. Introduction Staff safety: To prevent contaminations of technicians with machines. Patient Safety: Prevents infection and cross-contamination. Image Quality: Clean equipment ensures accurate diagnostic imaging and prevent equipment damage. Importance of Cleaning Radiology Equipment X-Ray Machines CT Scanners MRI Machines Ultrasound Equipment Nuclear imaging machines Portable Imaging Devices Common Equipment Requiring Regular Cleaning Approved Cleaning Agents: Hospital-grade disinfectants, alcohol wipes. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Gloves, masks, gowns if needed. Storage and Disposal: Safe storage of chemicals and disposal of used wipes/PPE. Cleaning Supplies and PPE Step 1: Wear appropriate PPE before handling equipment. Step 2: Turn off and unplug equipment when possible. Step 3: Clean high-touch surfaces with approved disinfectants (handles, buttons, screens). Step 4: Wipe down and disinfect patient contact areas. Step 5: Allow adequate drying time before next use General Cleaning SOP for Radiology Equipment X-Ray Machines: Focus on the tube head, control panels, and patient positioning surfaces. MRI Machines: Special considerations for non-ferromagnetic cleaning supplies; avoid moisture near the magnet. Ultrasound Equipment: Clean transducers, probes, and touch screens with compatible agents. Detailed Cleaning SOP for Specific Equipment Daily: High-touch surfaces and patient contact areas after each use. Weekly: Deep cleaning of all external parts. Monthly/Quarterly: Comprehensive internal and external equipment inspection (by qualified technicians). Frequency of Cleaning Checklist Completion & Reporting Issues : Record cleaning activities for each piece of equipment and report any damage or malfunctions found during cleaning. NB: Ensure all staff are following proper cleaning SOPs. Quality Assurance & Documentation Staff safety: To prevent contaminations of technicians with machines. Patient Safety: Prevents infection and cross-contamination. Image Quality: Clean equipment ensures accurate diagnostic imaging and prevent equipment damage. Increase lifespan of machines Importance of Cleaning Radiology Equipment Approved Cleaning Agents: Hospital-grade disinfectants, isopropyl alcohol wipes. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Gloves, masks, gowns if needed. Storage and Disposal: Safe storage of chemicals and disposal of used wipes/PPE. Cleaning Supplies and PPE Wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE) including masks, gloves, and eye protection when cleaning/disinfecting equipment. Switch off the equipment at the main power source before cleaning. Follow manufacturer instructions for specific cleaning agents and methods recommended for each type of equipment. Clean all surfaces thoroughly before disinfecting, removing any visible dirt or debris. Allow adequate drying time after cleaning/disinfection before restarting equipment. ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Tube Warming And Calibration CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Tube Warming And Calibration using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Learning objective: At the end of this session Students should be able to perform equipment tube warming and calibration. Tube Warming And Calibration Importance of calibration X-Ray Tubes Check Manufacturer Guidelines: Each equipment model may have unique requirements. Step 1: Access calibration settings (as guided by the manufacturer's protocol). Daily Calibration: Quick checks for routine operation, often automated. Enhanced Image Quality: Reliable and clear images for accurate diagnosis. Tube Warming and Calibration Learning objective: At the end of this session Students should be able to perform equipment tube warming and calibration. Introduction Tube Warming And Calibration Tube Warming: Is the process of gradually increasing the voltage and current of an x-ray tube to prepare it for use. Tube warming ensure the tube is operating at optimal temperature for efficient and safe image production. Importance of tube warming Minimizes thermal stress Prevents damage Ensures stable operation. Tube Warming Tube Warming And Calibration Calibration: Is the process of evaluating and adjusting the accuracy of measurement devices to ensure precise and accurate readings. Calibration enhances and verify the accuracy of the machines exposure parameters (kvp,MA,time). Calibration Importance of calibration Image quality: Ensure consistent and accurate image production. Patient safety: To prevent overexposure or underexposure, which can lead to diagnostic errors or patient harm. Regulatory compliance: Adheres to radiation safety standards and regulations. X-Ray Tubes CT Scanners MRI Machines (e.g, coil calibration) Portable Imaging Devices Special Radiology Equipment (e.g, fluoroscopy, mammography machines) Equipment Requiring Warming and Calibration Check Manufacturer Guidelines: Each equipment model may have unique requirements. PPE and Safety Precautions: Adhere to safety protocols (e.g, lead aprons, dosimeters). Environment Preparation: Ensure room temperature and ventilation are optimal for equipment operation. Preparation for Tube Warming and Calibration Tube Warming And Calibration Step 1:Power on, turn on the equipment and allow it to idle, select the appropriate exposure settings as recommended by the manufacturer. Step 2:Initial exposure, make a few low dose-dose exposures to warm up the tube and to avoid thermal shock. Step 3:Monitoring, Observe the tubes temperature indicator or monitor. Step 4: Completion, once the tube reaches a stable operating temperature, proceed with calibration or imaging. SOPs for Equipment Tube Warming Step 1: Access calibration settings (as guided by the manufacturer's protocol). Step 2: Perform initial checks on positioning and alignment, if applicable. Step 3: Conduct calibration procedures (voltage adjustments, software calibration, phantom testing for accuracy). Step 4: Validate calibration results and document findings. Step 5: Make necessary adjustments as indicated by calibration feedback. Calibration Procedure for Radiology Equipment Daily Calibration: Quick checks for routine operation, often automated. Weekly Calibration: More comprehensive, may include phantom testing for accuracy. Quarterly/Annual Calibration: Full diagnostic and performance calibration, often conducted by certified technicians. Calibration frequency Enhanced Image Quality: Reliable and clear images for accurate diagnosis. Extended Equipment Life: Reduces wear and tear on high-cost radiology equipment. Patient Safety: Reduces exposure to retakes or unnecessary radiation. Benefits of Consistent Tube Warming and Calibration Tube Warming And Calibration Documentation: Maintain detailed records of warming and calibration event(procedures results, and any adjustments made) with date, time, and technician name. Training: Ensure that personnel are properly trained in tube warming and calibration techniques. Maintenance: Regular maintenance of radiographic machine is essential for optimal performance and calibration accuracy. Considerations Equipment Tube Warming and Calibration ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Equipment Knobs CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Equipment Knobs using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic At the end of the session students should be able to check equipment knobs for functional performance. Equipment Knobs Exposure Time Knob: Adjusts the duration of radiation exposure, impacting image clarity and patient dose. Collimation Knob: Controls the size and shape of the X-ray beam, limiting exposure to only the area of interest. Inspect for Wear and Tear: Cracks, looseness, or unusual resistance. Turn Each Knob Through Full Range: Test each knob’s entire range to identify inconsistencies or issues. Sanitize Equipment: Wipe down knobs and surrounding areas. Radiological knobs used on ultrasound machines: Probe selection knob – Allows switching between different ultrasound probes/transducers Wall filter control – Used in Doppler modes to filter out low-frequency signals. Equipment Knobs At the end of the session students should be able to check equipment knobs for functional performance. Learning objective Equipment Knobs Equipment knobs are small, manual controls located on machinery or devices that allow users to adjust various settings or functions. In radiology equipment, knobs often control parameters such as exposure levels, focus, alignment, and positioning, which are crucial for achieving accurate and high-quality imaging results. Definition Exposure Time Knob: Adjusts the duration of radiation exposure, impacting image clarity and patient dose. Voltage Control Knob (kVp Knob):Regulates the kilovolt peak (kVp), affecting the contrast and penetration level of the X-ray. Current Control Knob (mA Knob): Adjusts the milliampere (mA) setting, which controls the quantity of radiation and influences image brightness. Focus Control Knob: Allows precise adjustment of the focal spot, ensuring that the area of interest is sharp and clear. Examples of Equipment Knobs in Radiology: Collimation Knob: Controls the size and shape of the X-ray beam, limiting exposure to only the area of interest. Alignment/Positioning Knobs: Adjusts the positioning of the equipment to ensure accurate alignment with the target anatomy. Image Intensity Control Knob (for fluoroscopy):Allows real-time adjustment of image brightness during fluoroscopy procedures. Gain, TCG, Zoom, depth etc.(in ultrasound) These knobs are vital for tuning imaging equipment to meet specific diagnostic requirements while maintaining patient and operator safety. Examples cont….. X-ray knobs Ultrasound knobs Inspect for Wear and Tear: Cracks, looseness, or unusual resistance. Ensure Proper Labeling: Labels should be visible and accurately reflect knob function. Clean Knobs if Necessary: Prevents contamination and ensures accurate adjustments. Visual Inspection of Knobs Turn Each Knob Through Full Range: Test each knob’s entire range to identify inconsistencies or issues. Check Calibration (if applicable): Verify that the knob settings align with actual output (for calibrated knobs). Document Performance: Log any issues, unusual resistance, or deviations from expected performance. Functional Check of Knobs Sanitize Equipment: Wipe down knobs and surrounding areas. Store PPE and Tools Properly: Return tools to storage and dispose of PPE if necessary. Confirm SOP Completion: Sign off on checklist or digital log to confirm all steps completed. Post-Check Clean-Up Collimation Knob: Controls the size and shape of the X-ray beam, limiting exposure to only the area of interest. Alignment/Positioning Knobs: Adjusts the positioning of the equipment to ensure accurate alignment with the target anatomy. Image Intensity Control Knob (for fluoroscopy):Allows real-time adjustment of image brightness during fluoroscopy procedures. Gain, TCG, Zoom, depth,Freeze knobsetc.(in ultrasound) These knobs are vital for tuning imaging equipment to meet specific diagnostic requirements while maintaining patient and operator safety. Examples cont….. Radiological knobs used on ultrasound machines: Depth control knob – Adjusts how deep the ultrasound beam penetrates into the body. Gain control knob – Increases or decreases overall brightness/darkness of the image. Time Gain Compensation (TGC) / Depth Gain Compensation (DGC) knob – Allows adjusting gain at specific depths. Focus/focal zone control knob – Selects depth to focus ultrasound waves for improved lateral resolution. Sector size/width control knob – Adjusts the width of the image displayed on the screen. Probe selection knob – Allows switching between different ultrasound probes/transducers Probe frequency control – Lets you adjust the frequency of the ultrasound emitted by the probe Zoom/magnify control – Magnifies a selected region of the image Flip screen button – Flips the orientation of the displayed image Sweep speed control – Adjusts how many seconds are shown on the x-axis in M-mode Wall filter control – Used in Doppler modes to filter out low-frequency signals. Angle correction control – Helps compensate for the angle of insonation in Doppler modes. Auto function button – Automatically adjusts settings like gain. Preset/application selector – Allows selecting pre-configured settings for different. NOTE: These knobs allow users to optimize ultrasound images for different applications and body types Proper knob settings are crucial for obtaining high-quality diagnostic images The exact labels and locations of knobs may vary slightly between different ultrasound ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Electrical Gadgets and Plugs CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Electrical Gadgets and Plugs using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Electrical Gadgets and Plugs Plugs and Power Connections: These are the physical connectors and wiring that supply power to the gadgets. Key Safety Measures: 1. Inspect Power Cords and Plugs: 3. Check Power Indicators: Additional Steps: Technicians: Conduct daily checks and basic functionality testing. Electrical Gadgets and Plugs Electrical Gadgets and Plugs Electrical Gadgets: These include all essential powered devices in the radiology suite that are essential for imaging and diagnostic procedures. Examples include: Imaging Machines, Computers and Monitors, Control Panels. Definitions Plugs and Power Connections: These are the physical connectors and wiring that supply power to the gadgets. They ensure that devices have a stable power source, essential for consistent and accurate operation. Definition cont… Electrical Gadgets and Plugs Radiology relies on high-powered machines and precision electronics thus faulty connections or devices can lead to inaccurate diagnostics, safety risks, or equipment downtime. Impact on Patient Safety: Protects patients from potential electrical hazards and Ensures equipment operates at optimal capacity. NB: In radiology, maintaining these electrical gadgets and their plugs is crucial to prevent equipment malfunction, ensure patient safety, and uphold accurate diagnostic standards. Importance of Electrical Safety in Radiology Key Safety Measures: Always turn off equipment before checking plugs or connections. Use insulated gloves if handling potentially faulty cables or plugs. Maintain dry conditions to reduce electrical hazards. Ensure all high-voltage areas are clearly marked. Safety Precautions 1. Inspect Power Cords and Plugs: Look for signs of wear, fraying, or damage. Confirm plugs fit securely in sockets without excessive force. Test Functionality: Power on the device to check basic functions. Ensure no unusual sounds or lights indicating faults. Step-by-Step SOP – Daily Checks 3. Check Power Indicators: Ensure all indicator lights display normal operating status. Document Findings: Record any issues in the maintenance log. Report major issues to the biomedical engineering team immediately. Daily checks cont…. Additional Steps: Perform a deeper inspection with specialized tools if necessary. Check internal components (if authorized and trained). Test connections with a multimeter or circuit tester. Monthly Detailed Inspections Technicians: Conduct daily checks and basic functionality testing. Biomedical Engineering: Handles detailed inspections, repairs, and replacement of faulty components. Supervisors: Ensure SOPs are followed and documented correctly. Roles and Responsibilities ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Accessories for Radiological Investigations CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Accessories for Radiological Investigations using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Learning Objective: Imaging Accessories: Grids, filters, contrast media injectors. Grids: Improve image contrast by reducing scatter radiation. Radiolucent Tables: Ensure minimal interference with imaging. Sandbags Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Lead aprons, gloves, thyroid collars. PACS: Streamlines storage and retrieval of imaging data Grids: Verify correct placement to reduce scatter radiation Transducer Selection: Choose based on the targeted anatomy (e.g., vascular, abdominal) Inspect all accessories for wear and tear. Enhance Imaging Quality: Categorizing and organizing accessories is essential for optimizing radiological practices. Accessories for Radiological Investigation Learning Objective: At the end of this session student must be able to: Identify accessories for radiological investigation. Organize different accessories for different radiological examination. Perform accessories preparations for different radiological investigation. Introduction Imaging Accessories: Grids, filters, contrast media injectors. Patient Positioning Devices: Radiolucent tables, immobilizers, supports (Foam wedges, sandbags, and straps). Safety Equipment: Lead aprons, shields, radiation dose monitors. Software Tools: PACS, image processing software. Categories of Radiological Accessories Grids: Improve image contrast by reducing scatter radiation. Filters: Enhance clarity for specific imaging needs. Contrast Media Injectors: Precise delivery with features like automatic flow rate control. Imaging Accessories Radiolucent Tables: Ensure minimal interference with imaging. Immobilizers: Provide stability for precise imaging. Adjustable Cushions: Enhance patient comfort and positioning. Patient Positioning Devices Sandbags foam wedge Head rest Patient Positioning devices strap Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Lead aprons, gloves, thyroid collars. Radiation Shields: Mobile and fixed barriers. Radiation Dose Monitors: Real-time feedback for exposure optimization. Safety Equipment Lead shields How to wear lead aprons and collar shield PACS: Streamlines storage and retrieval of imaging data Advanced Image Processing Tools: AI-enhanced clarity, 3D reconstructions Software Tools Grids: Verify correct placement to reduce scatter radiation Lead Shields and Aprons: Inspect for defects, ensure availability Positioning Aids: Set up foam wedges, straps, and sandbags as needed Film Holders/Markers: Organize for proper identification and positioning Preparing Accessories for Radiological Investigations Transducer Selection: Choose based on the targeted anatomy (e.g., vascular, abdominal) Gel Warmers: Prepare and ensure availability for patient comfort. Sterile Covers: Ready for procedures requiring sterility (e.g., biopsies). Patient Positioning: Arrange pillows or supports for optimal imaging angles. Preparation for Ultrasound Imaging Inspect all accessories for wear and tear. Confirm functionality of electronic devices (e.g., injectors, monitors). Organize and label accessories for easy identification. Ensure compliance with safety and hygiene standards. Checklist for Accessory Preparation Enhance Imaging Quality: Reduce noise and artifacts Optimize diagnostic accuracy Improve Safety: Minimize radiation exposure Ensure patient comfort Increase Operational Efficiency: Faster workflow Reduce equipment downtime(Extended lifespan of accessories and equipment) Importance of Accessories in Radiology Categorizing and organizing accessories is essential for optimizing radiological practices. Ensure the right accessory is available for each specific examination. Promote a culture of efficiency, safety, and quality in radiology. Proper preparation of accessories is vital for successful radiological investigations. Conclusion Any Question ???.. ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Room Design CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Room Design using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Introduction Equipment The type of equipment is very important for the following reasons: Usage Surrounding areas Remember we must shield against three sources of radiation Walls Floor Ceiling Control room Doors Labeling and Warning signs Windows X-ray Machine installment General recommendations for the design of a radiology room Room Design Questions Radiography room design Introduction The location, structural design and equipment layout of X‑ray rooms must be carefully considered from a radiation protection perspective. The practical requirements for radiation protection depend on the type of X ray equipment, usage, as well as the workload and adjacent occupancy. Radiography room design ensures radiation safety for patients, staff, visitors, and the public. Equipment What equipment is to be used? General radiography Fluoroscopy (with or without radiography) Dental (oral, cephalometric, or OPG) Mammography CT The type of equipment is very important for the following reasons: where the X Ray beam will be directed the number and type of procedures performed the location of the radiographer (operator) the energy (kVp) of the X Rays Usage Different X Ray equipment have very different usage. For example, a dental unit uses low mAs and low (~70) kVp, and takes relatively few X Rays each week A CT scanner uses high (~130) kVp, high mAs, and takes very many scans each week. Surrounding areas The X Ray room must be designed with knowledge of the location and use of all rooms which adjoin the X Ray room Obviously a toilet will need less shielding than an office Obtain a plan of the X Ray room and surroundings (including level above and below) Remember we must shield against three sources of radiation In decreasing importance, these are: scattered radiation (from the patient) primary radiation (the X Ray beam) leakage radiation (from the X Ray tube) Use a reasonable, worst case scenario (conservatively high estimates), since under-shielding is worse than over-shielding Anything which separates one area from another is called a barrier. Any barrier which may be in the direct X Ray beam is called a primary barrier. If the X Ray beam will never be directed towards a barrier, it is called a secondary barrier. In practice, some barriers will have the primary beam directed at them part of the time only, and the rest of the time they will be a secondary barrier. This must be taken into account in the calculations. Walls The walls shall be constructed using concrete blocks with density of 2.35g/cm3 of at least 30 cm thickness; Lead-Shielding equivalent to atleast 1mm lead Protection needs to extend from the floor to a height of not less than 2m and be continuous. Paint -Smooth (washable paint or easy clean-up) Color –cool color Note ; shielding must be calculated by a physicist or radiation expert Floor Material used is Vinyl floor Vinyl Conductivity-Non-conductive, which is safer around electrical equipment. Absorb rays Fire resistant Slip resistant Shiny Easily cleaned The flooring should be able to bear a load of heavy machines. Shielding equivalent atleast 1mm lead Ceiling Concrete is basic construction material used in floors and ceilings. The radiation attenuation effectiveness of a concrete barrier depends on its thickness, density and composition. using an average density concrete of 2.35gcm-3, a thickness of atleast 150mm and 100mm is ideal for ceiling and for floor respectively. The minimum ceiling height should be 2.5m. Control room There should be a control cubicle/room constructed by using concrete blocks 30 cm thick with a wall height of at least 2.4 m from the floor to the ceiling; The cubicle should have a patient viewing window of a size of at least 60 cm x 70 cm. The viewing window should be installed with a radiation shielding glass (lead glass) preferably of 2.7 mmPb/150 kV thickness or 2.1mmPb/110kV. The lower margin of the window should be at 120 cm from the floor; The control room has to be of adequate size to accommodate computers, image reader(s), printer(s) and personnel. Doors All doors leading to examination room should be shielded with at least 2 mm of lead sheet or 4 mm iron sheet and overlap of atleast 10 cm each side of the door The door(s) leading to the X-ray room are shielded to ensure that radiation leakage through the shutters and frames of the door(s) do not exceed 0.5 μSv/hr; All door should have handles and locks on the inside and the outside so that they may always be closed during exposures thus controlling access. Labeling and Warning signs The public and workers should be aware of the presence of radiation in any room. Therefore, standard radiation warning signs and notices at all entrances with a standard radiation sign must be displayed. The labelling or notices shall be in English and any other language. The redlight showing x-ray machine is in use must be installed at the top of each door leading to the x-ray room. Windows The windows are avoided to reduce the penetration of radiation in the surrounding area. Windows are not preferred in the x-ray room, but if there are installed they must be atleast 2.4m above the floor from the outside and access must be prevented Air conditioning machine is advised for cooling purposes of the X-ray machine. X-ray Machine installment The x-ray machines must be installed in the corner so that there is enough moving space Any x-ray equipment must be installed adequately shielded rooms to ensure that workers and the public in the vicinity oof the x-ray installation are not unduly exposed to x-ray radiation. Exposure button; remain atleast 6 feet( 2 meters) away from an x-ray radiation source. General recommendations for the design of a radiology room The equipment should be positioned so that the primary radiation beam is not directed at

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Component of Conventional X-ray equipment and their function CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Component of Conventional X-ray equipment and their function using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Introduction X-ray machine PARTS OF THE CONVECTIONAL X-RAY MACHINE X -ray tube X ray tube insert Cathode Filament WITHOUT FOCUSING CUP High voltage Anode Anode heel effect Factors affecting anode heel effect Anode angle Target-to-film distance Field size Positioning Stationary and Rotating Anode tubes Rotating vs Stationary anode tube Tube envelope Tube housing Features of x ray tube Housing The oil Collimation Collimators Filters and Filtration Filters Compensation filters METHODS FOR COOLING THE X ray tube cooling methods Tube cooling methods X Ray Tube Support System X ray Tube Stand Features of an Xray tube stand X ray tube Movements Intro. to the x ray circuit Component of convection x-ray equipment and their function Introduction X-ray are ionizing electromagnetic radiation from a highly evacuated hight-voltage tube. Inner orbital electrons in the target anode are stimulated to emit radiation via bombardment by a stream of electrons from heated cathode X-ray , like gamma rays, are penetration and carry enough energy to ionize atoms in their path. X-ray require shielding to reduce their intensity and minimize the danger of tissue damage. It can cause severe radiation burs and deep tissue damage and can lead to various cancers X-ray machine is the type imaging modality that use x-ray to produce a two-dimensional image of the inside of the body A conventional system uses an intensifying screen to create a latent image on x-ray film. The film is then processed, creating a manifest image that can be interpreted by a physician. It is later stored in the file room. PARTS OF THE CONVECTIONAL X-RAY MACHINE X-ray has three main components; Operating console High frequency generator X-ray tube –internal -external Other parts Collimator Patient table Grid bucky X-ray Film X RAY TUBE X -ray tube Within an X -ray tube. Each component part of the X -ray tube has been designed with the desire to produce electrons, supply them with energy and enable an efficient as possible interaction with a target This tube consists of a cathode and an anode enclosed within an evacuated glass or metal envelope This is all contained within lead – shielded housing X-ray tubes X ray tube insert A vacuumed tube which comprises the cathode and anode. Cathode The cathode is the negatively charged electrode, where electrons are released into the X -ray tube by thermionic emission. This is the start of the X -ray production process and consists of two parts: A filament. A focusing cup. The filament is a coil of wire, which is about 2 mm in diameter. It is tightly coiled, similar to the heating element in a bar heater or a toaster, in order to increase the surface area of the metal. Tungsten is a good material for this purpose Filament This means that it can heat and cool quickly, allowing it to be heated rapidly for thermionic emission, and it can withstand high temperatures without becoming damaged. The cathode has its filament circuit that supplies it with necessary filament current to heat it up The rate at which the electrons are emitted by the cathode is directly related to the tube current. WITHOUT FOCUSING CUP WITH FOCUSING CUP High voltage The tube current flows from the cathode to the positively charged anode. A high voltage is supplied across the tube in order to accelerate the electrons and increase their kinetic energy. This voltage is the kilovolt (kV) setting of the tube and is supplied by a source, which is separate from the X -ray tube. Anode The anode is the positively charged electrode, directly opposing the cathode. It consists of a high – density metal target, embedded in a copper disc. The electrons from the cathode hit the target area of the anode and interact. Tungsten is usually chosen as a target material. Anode Tungsten is usually chosen as a target material. This is due to the useful properties of this material. It has a high density, which increases the number of interactions per projectile electron. It also has a high melting point, allowing the target to become very hot without becoming damaged, It has a high thermal conductivity. This means the heat generated in the target is quickly dissipated to the surrounding copper, which acts as a heat sink for the anode. Anode heel effect This is the variation of the intensity of X-rays emitted by the anode along the anode-cathode axis. Occurs due to attenuation of produced beam by the anode. X-rays emitted towards the cathode are in general more intense than those emitted towards the anode. Factors affecting anode heel effect Anode angle Target-to-film distance Field size Positioning Anode angle By increasing the angle, the amount of target material perpendicular to the anode is decreased resulting in less resorption of x-rays produced. Increased anode angle Decreased anode angle Target-to-film distance Increase in distance reduces heel effect by allowing more divergence of the beam which produces a more uniform image. Field size The field will be more uniform at the center (i.e. smaller field size) due to the collimator absorbing the peripheral variations. SMALL field size LARGE field size Positioning By aligning higher attenuating material towards the cathode and lower attenuating material towards the anode the resulting field is more uniform. Stationary and Rotating Anode tubes X ray tube can either has a stationary or rotating anode Most tubes have a rotating anode. This is to increase the efficiency of removing heat from the target area during the production of X – rays, which makes it possible to produce a higher -intensity beam without damaging the area of the anode struck by the projectile electrons. Dental x-ray units, some low-output mobile x-ray machines and mobile fluoroscopy systems

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Dental Equipment CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Dental Equipment using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic Learning objectives Dental radiograph: A photographic image produced on film by the passage of x-rays through teeth and related structures. Dental Equipment Why dental radiograph? Root length determination of teeth prior to endodontic therapy. Monitoring the progress of orthodontic treatment and dental disease. X-RAY MACHINE component part (A) control panel, (B) extension arm, and (C) tubehead. Control Panel and circuitry Extension Arm Leaded-Glass Housing Cathode The cathode includes the following: Anode In the production of dental x-rays, three transformers are used to adjust the electrical circuits: Radiographic film Indirect-action or screen film, so-called because it is used in combination with intensifying screens in a cassette. Digital receptors; Electricity and Electrical Currents Rectification is the conversion of AC to DC. The filament circuit uses 3 to 5 V, regulates the flow of electrical current by the milliampere settings. RADIOLOGY AND IMAGING EQUIPMENT Dental x-ray machine Learning objectives Student should be able to describe the components and functions of dental equipment Dental radiograph: A photographic image produced on film by the passage of x-rays through teeth and related structures. Dental radiography: The production of radiographs of the teeth and adjacent structures by the exposure of an image receptor to x-rays. Dental radiographer: Any person who positions, exposes, and processes dental x-ray image receptors. COMPONENT AND FUNCTIONS OF DENTAL EQUIPMENT Dental Equipment Dental imaging is the creation of digital, print, or film representations of anatomic structures of the teeth for the purpose of diagnosis. Dental X-rays (radiographs) are used with low levels of radiation to capture images of the interior of teeth and gums to limit the amount of radiation to patients. Why dental radiograph? Detection of pathology associated with the teeth and their supporting structures such as caries, periodontal disease and periapical pathology. Detection of anomalies/injury associated with the teeth, their supporting structures, the maxilla and the mandible. Determination of the presence/absence of teeth and the localisation of any unerupted teeth. Root length determination of teeth prior to endodontic therapy. Detection of the presence/absence of radio-opaque salivary calculi and foreign bodies. Detection of anomalies/injury/pathology of adjacent facial structures. Evaluation of skeletal and /or soft tissues prior to orthodontic treatment. Monitoring the progress of orthodontic treatment and dental disease. The preoperative assessment of skeletal and soft-tissue patterns prior to orthognathic surgery. Assessment of bone levels prior to implant placement. Monitoring the healing and effectiveness of surgical treatment of the patient postoperatively. Dental Equipment Dental radiography involves techniques in which the image receptor is placed either inside the mouth (intraoral radiography) or outside the mouth (extraoral radiography).Extraoral X-rays show teeth, but their main focus is the jaw and skull. X-RAY MACHINE X-rays are produced in the dental x-ray machine. The dental x-ray machine can be divided into four study areas: (1)The component parts (2) The x-ray tube (3)Image receptors (4) The x-ray generating apparatus. component part This includes conventional dental X-ray units, panoramic X-ray machines, and cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) units. There are several conventional dental x-ray units available from various manufactures. They vary in appearance, complexity and cost,but all consist of three main visible components; (Figure 1) (A) control panel, (B) extension arm, and (C) tubehead. B C A Control Panel and circuitry The control panel of the dental x-ray machine contains an on-off switch and indicator light, an exposure button and control devices (time, kilovoltage, and milliamperage selectors) to regulate the x-ray beam. The control panel is plugged into an electrical outlet and appears as a panel or a cabinet mounted on the wall outside the dental operatory. Extension Arm The wall-mounted extension arm suspends the x-ray tubehead and houses the electrical wires that extend allows for movement and positioning of the tubehead. Tubehead The x-ray tubehead is a tightly sealed, heavy metal housing that contains the x-ray tube that produces dental x-rays. The component parts of the tubehead include the following; Dental Equipment A: Metal housing, or the metal body of the tubehead that surrounds the x-ray tube and transformers and is filled with oil-protects the x-ray tube and grounds the high-voltage components. B:Insulating oil, or the oil that surrounds the x-ray tube and transformers inside the tubehead- prevents overheating by absorbing the heat created by the production of x-rays. Dental Equipment C:Tubehead seal, or the aluminum or leaded-glass covering of the tubehead that permits the exit of x-rays from the tubehead-seals the oil in the tubehead and acts as a Filter to the x-ray beam. (Figure 2) Dental Equipment Also known as the heart of the x-ray generating system it is critical to the production of x-rays and warrants a separate discussion from the rest of the x-ray machine. The x-ray tube is a glass vacuum tube from which all the air has been removed. The x-ray tube used in dentistry measures approximately several inches long by 1 inch in diameter. X-ray tube The component parts of the x-ray tube include a leaded-glass housing, negative cathode, and positive anode (Figure 3). Leaded-Glass Housing The leaded-glass housing is a leaded-glass vacuum tube that prevents x-rays from escaping in all directions. One central area of the leaded-glass tube has a “window” that permits the x-ray beam to exit the tube and directs the x-ray beam toward the aluminum disks, lead collimator, and Position-indicating device (PID).Figure 4 Cathode The cathode, or negative electrode, consists of a tungsten wire filament in a cup-shaped holder made of molybdenum. The purpose of the cathode is to supply the electrons necessary to generate x-rays. In the x-ray tube, the electrons produced in the negative cathode are accelerated toward the positive anode. The cathode includes the following: The tungsten filament, or coiled wire made of tungsten, which produces electrons when heated. The molybdenum cup, which focuses the electrons into a narrow beam and directs

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Film Cassette CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Film Cassette using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Contents of This Topic FILM CASSETTES FILM CASSETTE X-RAY CASSETTES FEATURE OF THE IDEAL CASSETTE Cassette design and construction should include CONSTRUCTION Back of the cassette : A large number of synthetic materials are used in the construction of the cassette to make them lightweight Metal (e.g. aluminium), plastic laminate or carbon fibre are material commonly used in cassette front construction Materials used in cassette construction TYPES OF X-RAY CASSETTE ii) Double screen cassettes: Similarly, films which are separated by 10mm of spacing materials will bear images of separate body layers 10 mm apart. CASSETTES AND AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE DEVICES CARE OF X-RAY CASSETTE CASSETTE MAINTANANCE LOADING AND UNLOADING CASSETTE OTHER TYPES OF CASSETTE FILM CASSETTE FILM CASSETTES This is a container for exposed & unexposed film They are used to hold x-ray film and intensifying screen in close contact and uniformity with one another FILM CASSETTE A cassette is a light proof rigid holder that contains screens and film Cassettes are usually hinged (latches) on one side and can be opened from the other side. The side which is having the latches is the back side and other side facing the patient is called front side. The front side is made of material of low atomic number, like plastic or carbon fiber. This is to maximize the transmission with low attenuation. Carbon fiber (Z = 6) absorbs only 50% of X-rays compared to aluminum. Cassette with carbon fiber can be operated with low radiographic techniques, resulting in lesser patient dose. The back side is usually made of heavy metals (lead), having high atomic number, to minimize back scatter. CASSETTE X-RAY CASSETTES FUNCTIONS Protect film from exposure to light Protect film from bending and scratching during use. Contain intensifying screens, keeps film in close contact to screen during exposure. Exclude dust and dirt from the sensitive screen FEATURE OF THE IDEAL CASSETTE Strong and rigid to withstand daily wear and tear Lightweight to facilitate easy handling and carrying Easy to open and close, under low light conditions The cassette front must provide minimal beam attenuation be of uniform thickness and hence on irregularities which might be visible on radiograph No sharp edges and corners which might injure patients or staff Have a strong aperture for use in patient’s identification system Cassette design and construction should include feature contributing to close contact between film and screen e.g. Foam sponges Some similar materials covered front providing warmth to touch Should be available in range of film size Be sold with same guarantee of quality CONSTRUCTION Consist of a FRONT and BACK hinge at one long edge Attached to the inside back of the cassette is a thin sheet of lead foil and attached to a plastic foam pressure pad and an intensifying screen Front of the cassette : Cassette well containing the front intensifying screen and short lead blocker for patient identification May incorporate an additional foam pressure pad underneath the front intensifying screen Back of the cassette : May incorporate, in one corner, a recess and sliding aperture for with patient identification camera Locking methods e.g. spring clips, sliding locking bars, all serves to exclude all light when in locked position The foam pressure pad maintain close and uniform contact between the film and screen All internal metal or plastic surface are given a black coating in order to prevent the possibility of internal light reflection A large number of synthetic materials are used in the construction of the cassette to make them lightweight Cassette front Should be uniform in thickness and density and have no irregularities which might be made visible on the be made visible on the radiograph In order to minimize beam attenuation cassette front should confront the British standard (Bs 4302 1968) states that the cassette front, if metal, should have an Al equivalent of no more than 1.6 mm when used at 60 kVp or, if plastic, no more than 0.2mm Al equivalent. Materials used in cassette construction Metal (e.g. aluminium), plastic laminate or carbon fibre are material commonly used in cassette front construction All these material have the following advantages Light in weight Low beam absorption Strength and stiffness N/B The use of carbon fibre cassettes reduce patient dose significantly due to their lower beam attenuation Cassette front Materials used in cassette construction Cassette back: May be made of metal or plastic construction and lined with lead foil in order to protect film from radiation scattered backwards from a buck tray or other surface The BS recommendation states that it should have a lead equivalent of at least 0.12 mm when used with equipment operating at 150kV constant potential Cassette back Materials used in cassette construction Cassette fitting Clip or fastener – usually stainless steel Hinge metal or Plastic Pressure pad plastic foam sponge TYPES OF X-RAY CASSETTE (i) Single screen cassette : Have single intensifying screen and are designed to be used with single – sided emulsion film Their principal application is in mammography ii) Double screen cassettes: Have screen on both sides have intensifying screen on both sides and are designed to be used with double– sided emulsion film Used in general radiography TYPES OF X-RAY CASSETTE CURVED CASSETTE: There are of two types The first used when the necessary close object / cassette contact cannot be achieved with a conventional flat cassette e.g. intercondylar projections of the knee with the joint flexed The second used to obtain panoramic views of the mandible and maxilla in orthodontic radiography ( orthopantomography) Film Cassette (a) is used where the necessary close contact between object and cassette cannot be achieved with a conventional flat cassette, e.g. intcrcondylar views of the flexed knee joint; (b) is used to obtain panoramic views of the mandible (orthopantomography). CURVED CASSETTE TYPES OF

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Intro To Equipment CRT04104 · Radiology and Imaging Equipment START READING NOTES Study Intro To Equipment using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Radiology and Imaging Equipment. Intro To Equipment RADIOGRAPHIC & IMAGING EQUIPMENT Equipment What is radiology? Radiology comes from two words Radio- meaning radiation -logos; means ‘science’ or ‘study of’ Radiology is a branch of medicine that uses imaging technology to diagnose and guide treatment of diseases. The main branches of radiology include Diagnostic radiology (diagnose diseases) Interventional radiology (guide treatment) Nuclear medicine; makes use of small amounts of radioactive materials (radiopharmaceuticals) to examine organ function and structure. Radiotherapy Uses controlled doses of radiation to treat diseases, primarily cancer. Doctors that specialize in interpretation of medical images are called radiologists. What is radiography? Radiography comes from two words Radio- meaning radiation Graphy- means ‘to record’ or ‘take a picture’ or ‘create an image’ Therefore; Radiography is the use of high energy radiation to create medical images of inside the human body.What is diagnostic radiography? Diagnosis; is the process of identifying a disease, condition or injury. Diagnostic radiography; is the process of creating medical images of inside the human body for the purpose of identifying a disease, condition or injury. Health care professionals or technologists who deal with creating medical images are called radiographers. What is a radiograph? A radiograph is an image or picture produced on a film or sensitive plate after exposing patient to high energy radiation. A radiograph is the end product of radiography. Medical Imaging Equipment There are several equipment used in medical imaging X-ray machine Dental x-ray machine Ultrasound CT scanner MRI Mammography Fluoroscopy  Gamma Camera PET SPECT Each equipment uses a different technology to create medical images.X-ray Machine An x-ray machine is a medical imaging device that uses xrays to create images of internal structures of the body. X-ray images are useful in assessing the skeletal system (bones) and even some soft tissues especially lungs. X-ray images are two dimensional (2D).Types of X-ray Machines There are three types of x-ray equipment based on their image acquiring systems. Conventional radiography makes use of screen/film imaging system. after exposure, a latent image is created on the film. the film is then processed chemically to produce a manifest image which can be interpreted by a physician. screen and film are placed in a cassette at a very close contact A conventional x-ray machine has the following components; X-ray tube; produces the x-rays X-ray table; used for positioning the patient. Film/Screen; interacts with x-rays to form an image. Control panel; permits the selection of exposure factors (mA, kV and time) and initiation of exposures High-voltage generator; modifies incoming voltage and current to provide x-ray tube with the power needed to produce an x-ray beam of desired peak-kilo-voltage (kVp) and current (mA). Components of high-voltage generator Computed radiography (CR) makes use of cassette based phosphor imaging plates (PSP) to create a digital image. a cassette containing a phosphor imaging plate is exposed then scanned by computerized system (a reader) to obtain a digital image. It is also a form of digital radiography due to production of a digital image. Direct Digital Radiography (DDR) Involves translating x-ray energy into electric signal that is in turn converted into digital data to form a digital image. This is achieved by the use of detectors. A digital x-ray machine has the following components; X-ray tube X-ray table Image receptor Control panel High-voltage generatorX-ray ImagesEquipment Preparation How do I prepare an x-ray machine for an investigation? (i) Wipe the x-ray table, the vertical Bucky and x-ray tube handles with antiseptic solution to avoid cross infection. (iii) Switch on the x-ray generator and the control console. (iv) Warm up the x-ray tube machine at the beginning of the day. (v) Enter patient details ready for exposure.Dental X-ray Machine This is an x-ray machine used by dentists to create medical images of teeth, jaws and other parts of the mouth to diagnose patient’s oral condition. There are two main types of dental x-rays; Intraoral; the film is put inside the mouth. Extraoral; the film is placed outside the mouth. Extraoral X-ray UnitsComponents of Dental X-ray Machine Tubehead; contains the x-ray tube which produces the x-rays. Control panel; permits the selection of exposure factors (mA, kV and time) and initiation of exposures Film; interacts with x-rays to form an image. Support arms; offers mechanical support to the tube head.Dental ImagesUltrasound Machine An ultrasound machine uses high frequency sound waves to create images of inside the body. Ultrasound frequencies in diagnostic radiology range from 2 megahertz (2 MHz) to approximately 15 MHz. The sound humans hear has a frequency range of 20 hertz (20 Hz) to 20,000 Hz.  A healthcare professional or technologist who specializes in ultrasound only is called a sonographer.Ultrasound Images Equipment Preparation How do I prepare an ultrasound machine for an investigation? (i) Make sure an ultrasound probe to be used is connected to its port on the machine. (ii) Connect the ultrasound machine to the source of power if it is not battery charged. NB; It is best to connect the machine to the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) to avoid damage to the machine incase off power outage/cut.(iii) Switch on the ultrasound machine ready for use.CT SCAN The word CT stand for computed tomography. A CT scan uses x-rays to obtain detailed internal images of the body in form of slices/sections. A CT scan also produces 3 dimensional images. Equipment Preparation How do I prepare a CT-scan machine for an investigation? (i) Wipe the CT table with antiseptic solution to avoid cross infection. (ii) Switch on the control console. (iii) Warm up the CT-scan machine at the beginning of the day.MRI MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging. MRI is a machine which uses magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of organs and tissues within the body.MR ImagesMammography Mammography is a radiographic equipment which uses