Pharmaceutical Sciences Notes

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 The ABO Blood Grouping System and Rhesus Factors Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 18 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 18: The ABO Blood Grouping System and Rhesus Factors Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe the ABO System of Blood Grouping • Describe Rhesus Factors in Relation to Blood Grouping • Describe Blood Clotting Mechanism • Explain the Role of Vitamin K in Clotting Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer • Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |40 minutes | Presentation|The ABO System of Blood Grouping | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 |25 minutes |Presentation | Rhesus Factors in Relation to Blood| | | |Brainstorming |Grouping | |4 | | Presentation| Blood Clotting Mechanism and Role | | |40 minutes |Small Group |of Vitamin K in Clotting | | | |Discussion | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: The ABO System of Blood Grouping (40 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is ABO system of blood grouping? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Blood type (group) o A classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). o These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system, and some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. o Several of these red blood cell surface antigens, collectively form a blood group system o Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. • ABO system o The ABO system is the most important blood group system in human blood transfusion. o It is associated with anti- A antibodies and anti-B antibodies o Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. o An individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood only to another group AB individual o Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen o A group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type A or AB. o Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen o A group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB. o Blood group O individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their blood serum contain IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and B blood group antigens. o A group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (i.e. A, B, O or AB) if anyone needs a blood. STEP 3: Rhesus Factors in Relation to Blood Grouping (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are Rhesus factors in relation to blood grouping? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Rhesus Blood Group System o The Rhesus system is the second most significant blood group system in human blood transfusion. o The term Rhesus (Rh) blood group system refers to the 5 main Rhesus antigens (C, c, D, E and e) as well as the many other less frequent Rhesus antigens o The most significant Rhesus antigen is the Rh D antigen because it is the most immunogenic of the five main rhesus antigens o The terms "positive" or "negative" refer to either the presence or absence of the Rh D antigen irrespective of the presence or absence of the other antigens of the Rhesus system o If an Rh-negative person receives Rh-positive blood by mistake, antibodies will be formed just as they would be to bacteria or viruses o A first mistaken transfusion often does not cause problems, because antibody production is slow upon the first exposure to Rh-positive RBCs o A second transfusion, however, when anti-Rh antibodies are already present, will bring about a transfusion reaction, with haemolysis and possible kidney damage STEP 4: Blood Clotting Mechanism (40 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What is blood clotting mechanism? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of Blood Cells Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 19 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 19: Common Disorders of Blood Cells Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • Session 14, Blood grouping and ABO system Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Term Blood Cell Disorder • Explain the Common Disorders of the Blood Cells • Explain Thrombosis and Embolism Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer • Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |05 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Blood Cells Disorders | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 | |Presentation |Common Blood Disorders of Blood | | |20 minutes |Small Group |Cells | | | |Discussion | | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Thrombosis and Embolism | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Blood Cell Disorder (5 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is a blood cell disorder? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Blood cell disorder is a disorder which affects the red blood cells, white blood cells and smaller circulating cells called platelets STEP 3: Common Disorders of the Blood Cells (20 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 15 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the common blood cells disorders? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Classification of Common Disorders of the Blood Cells • Anaemia o Iron-deficiency anaemia o Sickle-cell disease (anaemia) o Aplastic anaemia o Haemolytic anaemia • Haemophilia • Leukaemia • Vitamin K deficiency Anaemia • Anaemia is a deficiency of red blood cells, or insufficient haemoglobin within the red blood cells. • There are many different types of anaemia. o Iron-deficiency anaemia ▪ It is caused by a lack of dietary iron, and there is not enough of this mineral to form sufficient haemoglobin. ▪ A person with this type of anaemia may have a normal RBC count and a normal haematocrit, but the haemoglobin level will be below normal. ▪ A deficiency of vitamin B12, which is found only in animal foods, leads to pernicious anaemia, in which the RBCs are large, misshapen, and fragile. ▪ Another cause of this form of anaemia is lack of the intrinsic factor due to autoimmune destruction of the parietal cells of the stomach lining. o Sickle-cell disease (anaemia) ▪ It is a genetic disorder of haemoglobin (Hb-S), which causes RBCs to sickle, clog capillaries, and rupture. ▪ Even though erythropoiesis is stimulated by the loss of the cells, it cannot keep pace with haemolysis. o Aplastic anaemia ▪ It is suppression of the red bone marrow, with decreased production of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets. ▪ This is a very serious disorder that may be caused by exposure to radiation, certain chemicals such as benzene, or some medications. o Haemolytic anaemia ▪ It is any disorder that causes rupture of RBCs before the end of their normal life span. ▪ Sickle-cell anaemia and Rh disease of the new-born are examples. ▪ Another example is malaria, in which a protozoan parasite reproduces in RBCs and destroys them. ▪ Haemolytic anaemias are often characterized by jaundice because of the increased production of bilirubin. Haemophilia • Haemophilia is an inherited deficiency of clotting in which bleeding may occur spontaneously or after only minor trauma. • It is the oldest known hereditary bleeding disorder • Different types of haemophilia are due to deficiencies of different blood clotting factors and exhibit varying degrees of severity, ranging from mild to severe bleeding tendencies Leukaemia • The term leukaemia refers to a group of red bone marrow cancers in which abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably • The accumulation of the cancerous white blood cells in red bone marrow interferes with the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets • As a result the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced, an individual is more susceptible to infection, and blood clotting is abnormal • The cause of most types of leukaemia is unknown Vitamin K deficiency • Vitamin K is not involved in actual clot formation but it is required for the synthesis of four clotting factors. • It is a fat-soluble vitamin that can be absorbed through the lining of the intestine and into the blood if absorption of lipids is normal • People suffering from disorders that slow absorption of lipids (for example, inadequate release of bile into the small intestine) often experience uncontrolled bleeding as a consequence of vitamin K deficiency STEP 4: Thrombosis and Embolism (10 minutes) Thrombosis • It is the formation of a clot in the blood that either blocks, or partially blocks a blood vessel. • The thrombus may lead to infarction, or death of tissue, due to a blocked blood supply. • The pathologic form of haemostasis is thrombosis. It involves blood

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Body Fluids and Electrolytes Imbalance Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 20 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 20: Body Fluids and Electrolytes Imbalance Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Identify Major Body Fluid Compartment • Differentiate Between Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids • Explain Mechanism that Maintain Homeostasis of Body Fluid • Describe Body Fluid Electrolyte Levels and their Functions • Explain Electrolyte Imbalance Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | 15 |Presentation |Major Body Fluid Compartment | | |minutes | | | |3 |35 minutes |Presentation |Mechanism that Maintain Homeostasis | | | |Buzzing |of | | | |Brainstorming |Body Fluid | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation |Body Fluid Electrolytes and their | | | |Brainstorming |Functions | |5 |25 minutes |Presentation |Electrolyte Imbalance | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Major Body Fluid Compartment (15 minutes) • In the human body there are several major fluid compartments each of which is subject to homeostatic regulation. • Fluid content of the human body ranges from 40% to 60% of bodyweight. • The following are the major fluid compartments found in human body. o Intracellular Fluid (ICF) water inside the cell comprises 2/3 of the body's water. o Its main function is to facilitate intracellular chemical reactions that maintain life ▪ Is the largest compartment. ▪ ICF is about 40% of the body weight. ▪ The ICF is primarily a solution of potassium and organic anions, proteins etc. ▪ The cell membranes and cellular metabolism control the constituents of this ICF. o Extracellular Fluid (ECF) is the remaining 1/3 of the body's water, any fluid not contained inside a cell therefore comprises the extracellular compartment. ▪ ECF is about 20% of the body weight, it consists mainly of plasma and lymph fluid (circulating compartment) and interstitial fluid (the spaces between the cells). • The ECF is further subdivided into three sub-compartments. o Interstitial Fluid (ISF) ▪ surrounds the cells, but does not circulate ▪ It comprises about 3/4 of the ECF. o Plasma circulates as the extracellular component of blood. ▪ It makes up about 1/4 of the ECF. o Transcellular fluid ▪ It is a set of fluids that are outside of the normal compartments. ▪ These 1-2 litres of fluid make up the Cerebrospinal Fluids (CSF), Digestive Juices, Mucus, specialized joint fluids aqueous; humour and vitreous humour the fluids in the eyeball • The ECF provide a relatively constant environment for cells and transport substances to and from the cells. • Example; A 70 kg man contains about 40-45 litres of water divided into the different compartments as follow • Out of 45 total litres of body fluid o Intracellular fluid 27litres o Extracellular 18 litres, which are further, subdivided as follows; interstitial 13 litres, plasma 3.5litres and lymph 1.5litres. STEP 3: Mechanism that Maintain Homeostasis of Body Fluid (35 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the factors that cause fluid and electrolyte imbalance? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Under normal conditions homeostasis of the total volume of the water in the body is maintained or restored primarily by adjusting output urine volume and secondarily by fluid intake • Regulation of fluid intake; When dehydration begins to develop, salivary secretion decreases, producing the sensation of thirst; individual increased fluid intake to offset increased output tends to restore fluid balance • Regulation of urine volume; two factors determine urine volume o Glomerular filtration rate, except under abnormal conditions remain fairly constant o Rate of tubular reabsorption of water fluctuates considerably; normally adjusts urine volume to fluid intake influenced by hormonal mechanisms • Some of the factors that alter fluid loss under abnormal conditions are increased rate of respiration and volume of sweat secreted, certain abnormal conditions such as vomiting, diarrhoea, or intestinal drainage can produce fluid and electrolyte imbalance • The volume of extracellular fluid can increase or decrease, even if the osmolality of the extracellular fluid is maintained within a narrow range of values • The following are the major mechanisms that regulate extracellular fluid volume o Neural mechanism ▪ Neural mechanism changes the frequency of action potentials carried by sympathetic neurons to the afferent arterioles of the kidney in response to change in blood pressure ▪ When baroreceptors detect an increase in arterial and venous pressure, the frequency of action potential carried by sympathetic neuron to the afferent arteriole decreases. ▪ Consequently the afferent arteriole dilates ▪ This increases glomerular capillary pressure, resulting in an increase in the glomerular filtration rate, an increase in filtrate volume and an increase in urine volume ▪ When the baroreceptors detect a decrease in arterial and venous pressure the action potential carried by sympathetic neuron causes constriction of afferent arteriole and the opposite occurs o Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism ▪ The Renin angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism responds to small changes in the blood volume

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Acid – Base Balances and Common Electrolyte Disorders Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 21 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 21: Acid – Base Balances and Common Electrolyte Disorders Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Acidity ,Alkalinity and pH • Describe Acid Base Balance • Describe Acidosis and Alkalosis • Describe Electrolyte Disorders • Describe Oedema and Ascites Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer • Hand out 17.1:Oedema and Ascites SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |25 minutes |Presentation | Acid, Base and Acid Base Balance | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 |15 minutes |Presentation |Acidosis and Alkalosis | |4 |50 minutes |Presentation |Common Electrolyte Disorders | | | |Small Group | | |5 |15 minutes |Presentation |Oedema and Ascites | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Acid Base Balance (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions: | | | |What is acidity? | |What is alkalinity? | |What is pH? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Acidity is the term which expresses the concentration of Hydrogen ion (H+) of any substance in aqueous solution or the body fluids. • Alkalinity is the term used to express the concentration of Hydroxyl ions (OH-) or the salinity of any substance in aqueous solution or the body fluids. • pH is the scale used to determine the acidity or the alkalinity of the body fluids • The higher the pH the less the acid the substance is and lower the pH the more the acid the substance is. The Body pH • Optimum pH is maintained by keeping the balance between acids and bases produced by the body cells. • There is an inbuilt mechanism which ensures that excess acid or alkali is safely eliminated from the body, better known as the buffer system. • The organs most active in this activity are the lungs and the kidneys. • In order to maintain normal blood pH the cells of the proximal convoluted tubules secret hydrogen ions. In the filtrate hydrogen ions combine with buffers o Bicarbonate forming carbonic acid o Ammonia forming ammonium ions o Hydrogen phosphate forming dihydrogen phosphate • Carbonic acid is converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), carbon dioxide is reabsorbed, maintaining the buffering capacity of the blood. • Hydrogen ions are lost through urine as ammonium salts and hydrogen sulphate. • Other buffer systems include body proteins and phosphates which absorb excess hydrogen ions (H+). • The lungs regulate the blood pH by either increasing or decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide lost (increased or decreased respiration). • Carbon dioxide combine with water to form carbonic acid, which eventually dissociates to bicarbonates and hydrogen ions thus lowering the body pH. • Therefore any condition which retains carbon dioxide in the body will increase the blood acidy and vice versa. • Kidneys regulate blood pH by controlling the amount of hydrogen ion lost through urine. • The normal blood pH ranges from 7. 35 to 7.45. STEP 3: Acidosis and Alkalosis (15 minutes) • The buffer systems described above compensate for most of pH fluctuations, but these reserves are limited and in extreme cases, can become exhausted • When the blood pH falls below 7.35 and all the reserves of alkaline buffers are consumed, the condition of acidosis exists • In the opposite manner when the pH rises above 7.45, the increased alkali uses up all the acid reserve and the state of alkalosis ensues • Acidosis and alkalosis are both injurious to the body, particularly to the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. In practice acidotic states are more common than alkalotic ones, because the body tends to produce more acid than alkali • Acidosis may follow respiratory problems, if lungs are not excreting CO2 as efficiently as normal, or if the body is producing excess acid as in diabetic ketoacidosis or in renal diseases when kidneys are not excreting H+ as normal • Alkalosis may be caused by loss of basic substances as in vomiting or diarrhoea, and rarely through hyperventilation (excess CO2 loss) STEP 4: Electrolyte Disorders (50 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |What are the common electrolyte disorders? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • An electrolyte disorder is an imbalance of certain ionized salts( which include bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphate, potassium , and sodium) in the blood Sodium • Hypernatremia refers to a high sodium concentration in the blood than normal. • Hypernatremia can be caused by inadequate water intake, excessive fluid loss kidneydisease, severe burns, and prolonged vomiting or diarrhea), or sodium retention (caused by excessive sodium intake oraldosteronism ). • Hyponatremia refers to low sodium concentration

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Cardiovascular Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 22 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 22: Structure and Functions of Cardiovascular System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Circulatory and Cardiovascular System • Explain Organization of the Cardiovascular System • Describe Structure of the Heart • Describe Blood Supply to the Heart • Describe Conducting System of the Heart • Describe Foetal Circulation Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer • Handout 22.1: The Human Heart • Handout 22.2: The Surface Anatomy of The Heart • Handout 22.3: Blood Supply of the Heart • Handout 22.4: Conducting System of The Heart • Handout 22.5: Foetal Circulation SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | 15minutes |Presentation, |Definition Circulatory system and | | | |Brainstorm |Cardiovascular System | |3 |15 minutes |Presentation |Organization of the cardiovascular | | | | |system | |4 | 20minutes |Presentation, |Structure of the Human Heart | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |15minutes |Presentation |Blood Supply to the Heart | |6 |20 minutes |Presentation |Conducting System of the Heart | |7 |20 minutes |Presentation |Foetal Circulation | | | |Buzzing | | |8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |9 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition and Organization of Cardiovascular System (15minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is circulatory system? | |What is cardiovascular system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Circulatory system: • An organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), gases (such as oxygen and CO2) , hormones, blood cells, , etc. to and from cells/tissue in the body, and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. o The main role of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, gases, to/from cells/tissues of the body. o Circulatory system is composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. o Humans, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries). Cardiovascular system: • The system that include the heart and the blood vessels. STEP 3: Organisation of the Cardiovascular System (15 minutes) • The main components of the cardiovascular system are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels • Blood circulates within a fast, high capacity system made up of: o The heart, which is the central pump and main motor of the system; o Arteries, which lead away from the heart and carry the blood to the peripheral parts of the body o Veins which return the blood to the heart • The heart can be thought of as a pair of following muscular pumps: o One pump feeding a minor loop (pulmonary circulation), which serves the lungs and oxygenates the blood, o The other pump feeding a major loop (systemic circulation), which serves the rest of the body o With limited exceptions, each loop is a closed system of tubes, so that blood by itself does not usually leave the circulation • From the centre to the periphery, the vascular tree shows three main modifications. • The arteries increase in number by repeated bifurcation and by sending out side branches, in both the systemic and the pulmonary circulation. o The aorta, which carries blood from the heart to the systemic circulation, gives rise to about 4 × 106 arterioles and four times as many capillaries. o The arteries also decrease in diameter, although not to the same extent as their increase in number, so that a hypothetical cross-section of all the vessels at a given distance will increase in total area with increasing distance from the heart. o The blood flow is faster near the heart than at the periphery. • Venules are vessels which return blood from the periphery, converge on each other forming a progressively smaller number of veins of increasingly larger size. • As with arteries, the hypothetical total cross-sectional area of all veins at a given level reduces nearer to the heart. • Eventually, only the two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, open into the heart from the systemic circulation. • A similar pattern is found in the pulmonary circulation, but here the vascular loop is shorter and has fewer branch points, and consequently, the number of vessels is smaller than in the systemic circulation. STEP 4: Structure of the Human Heart (20 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is the heart? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ • It is about 10 cm long and it is about the size of the owner’s fist • It weighs about 300g Location of the Heart • Lies in the

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Cardiovascular Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 23 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 23: Common Disorders of the Cardiovascular System Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Common Terms in Cardiovascular Disorders • List Common Cardiovascular Disorders • Explain Common Cardiovascular Disorders • Identify Common Risk Factors Associated with Cardiovascular Disorders Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector and Transparencies or Slide Projector/LCD and Computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation, |Definition of the Cardiovascular | | | |Brainstorming |disorders | |3 |25 minutes |Presentation, |Common Disorders of Cardiovascular | | | |Brainstorming |System | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Hypertension and its Risk Factors | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of the Cardiovascular Disorder (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is the cardiovascular disorder? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Cardiovascular disorders are the disorders of the heart and blood vessels o Vascular disease is responsible for more morbidity and mortality than any other category of human disease o Cardiovascular disorders are due to ,such as age, genetics, and lifestyle STEP 3: Common Disorders of Cardiovascular System (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the common disorders of cardiovascular system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | The common disorders of the cardiovascular system include: • Hypertension • Hypotension • Cardiac failure • Ischaemic heart diseases • Angina pectoris • Myocardial infarction • Arrhythmias • Shock • Varicose veins • Aaneurisms • Arteriosclerosis • Atherosclerosis Arteriosclerosis • Arteriosclerosis literally means hardening of the arteries • Is the term used to describe degenerative changes in small arteries, commonly occurring in older individuals and diabetics • Elasticity is lost, and the walls become thick and hard • The lumen gradually narrows and may become obscured • This leads to diffuse ischemia and death in various tissues such as those of the: heart, kidneys, or brain Atherosclerosis • It is the condition in which an artery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty • materials such as cholesterol( accumulation of lipids in blood vessels causing occlusion) • Is differentiated by the presence of atheromas (plaques consisting of lipids, cells, and cell debris, often with attached thrombi, which form inside the walls of large arteries) • Atheromas form primarily in large arteries such as the aorta and the coronary arteries Angina pectoris • It is an episodic, reversible oxygen insufficiency • This condition is the most common form of IHD • Angina pectoris is applied to varying forms of transient chest pain that are attributable to insufficient myocardial oxygen • Atherosclerotic lesions that produce a narrowing of the coronary arteries are the major cause of angina • However, tachycardia(increased heart rate), anaemia, hyperthyroidism, and hypotension can cause an oxygen imbalance Myocardial Infarction • Myocardial infarction (MI) is an area of dead cardiac muscle tissue, with or without haemorrhage • Myocardial infarction is produced by an obstruction of the coronary artery, which results in a lack of oxygen to the tissue • For those who survive an myocardial infarction, there is a notably greater risk of a second myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, or a stroke occurring within a short time Cardiac Arrhythmias (dysrhythmias) • They are deviations from the normal cardiac rate or rhythm • They may result from damage to the heart’s conduction system or from systemic causes such as electrolyte abnormalities, fever, hypoxia, stress, and drug toxicity Congestive heart failure (CHF) • Is one of the most common cardiovascular disorders • This condition occurs when the heart is not able to pump enough blood to meet the body’s metabolic demands. • Heart failure may be caused by any disorder that affects the heart’s ability to receive or eject blood Aneurysm • It is a localized abnormal dilation of a blood vessel or the heart • When an aneurysm involves all three layers of the arterial wall (intima, media, and adventitia) or the attenuated wall of the heart, it is called a true aneurysm o Atherosclerotic, syphilitic, and congenital aneurysms, and ventricular aneurysms that follow transmural myocardial infarctions, are examples of this type STEP 4: Hypertension and its Risk Factors (10 minutes) Hypertension is elevation of blood pressure (B.P) usually systolic blood pressure is ≥ 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure is ≥ 90mmHg measured on three separate occasions. There are three classifications of hypertension: Primary or essential hypertension • It is idiopathic (occurring spontaneously from an unknown cause) • Essential hypertension develops when the blood pressure is consistently above 140/90 mmHg Secondary hypertension • It results from renal (e.g., nephrosclerosis) or endocrine (e.g., hyperaldosteronism) disease, or pheochromocytoma, a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla • In this type of hypertension, the underlying problem must be resolved Malignant hypertension • It is an

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Respiratory Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 24 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 24: Structure and Functions of the Respiratory System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Respiratory System • Explain the Structure and Function of the Upper Respiratory Tract • Explain the Structure and Function of the Lower Respiratory Tract Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |05 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Respiratory System | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 | |Presentation |Structure and Functions of the Upper| | |60 minutes |Small Group |Respiratory System | | | |Discussion | | |4 | |Presentation |Structure and Functions of the Lower| | |40 minutes |Small Group |Respiratory System | | | |Discussion | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Respiratory System (5 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body • Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body • The respiratory system may be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. STEP 3: Structure and Functions of the Upper Respiratory System (60 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • The organs of the upper respiratory system are located outside of the thorax and consists of the nose, pharynx and larynx • Nose o Is made up of bone and cartilage covered with skin, and lined with hairs within the nostrils. The hairs help to block dusts entry o The two nasal cavities are within the skull, separated by the nasal septum, which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer o The nasal mucosa is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which produce mucus o The mucus produced help to trap bacteria and particles from the air o There are three shelve like bones called conchae project from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity o In the upper nasal cavities are the olfactory receptors, which detect vaporized chemicals that have been inhaled. o Paranasal sinuses: ▪ Air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones ▪ Are lined with ciliated epithelium, and the mucus produced drains into the nasal cavities. ▪ The functions of the paranasal sinuses are to lighten the skull and provide more vibrating air for the voice. • Functions of the nose o Respiration (breathing) ▪ The nose humidify, warm, filter and clean the air o Reception and elimination of secretions from the nasal mucosa, paranasal sinuses, and nasolacrimal ducts o Olfaction (smelling) – is the organ of sense of smell o It aids speech- this is enhanced by the presence of paranasal sinuses • Pharynx o It is a muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and anterior to the cervical vertebrae. o It is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. o Nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity. ▪ It is continuous with lining of the nose and consists of ciliated columnar epithelium and the intermediate layer is fibrous tissue. o Oropharynx; lies behind the oral cavity. ▪ It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with lining of the mouth and oesophagus. o Laryngopharynx also known as the hypopharynx, this is also lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium. • Functions of the pharynx o Passageway for air and food o Warming and humidifying air o Protection o Taste o Facilitates Hearing o The pharynx is also important in vocalization and Speech • Larynx o The larynx houses the vocal folds, and is situated just below the pharynx between the root of the tongue and upper end of the trachea. o The larynx consists of cartilages attaches to each other by ligaments and membranes. o The framework of the larynx is formed by nine cartilages (e.g. thyroid, epiglottis) connected to one another by muscles, ligaments and membranes. o The epiglottisis the uppermost cartilage. During swallowing, the larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis closes over the top to prevent entry of saliva and food to the larynx • Functions of the larynx o Speaking (speech) ▪ Sound production is primarily done by the focal folds o Respiration (is the air passageway between pharynx and the trachea) o Swallowing ▪ The epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into the larynx STEP 4: Structure and Functions of the Lower Respiratory System (40 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 25 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 25: Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • Session 20; Structure and functions of respiratory tract. Students Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Common Respiratory System Disorder • List Common Respiratory System Disorders • Explain the Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract • Explain the Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead projector and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation |Common Respiratory Disorders | | | |Buzzing | | |3 | |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Upper | | |10 minutes |Brainstorming |Respiratory System | |4 |15 minutes |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Lower | | | |Buzzing |Respiratory System | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Disorders of the Respiratory System (10 minutes) |Activity: buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the common disorders of respiratory systems? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Respiratory disorders: • A medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, • It includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing • Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and lung cancer • Upper respiratory system disorders o Pharyngitis o Epiglottitis o Rheumatic fever o Diphtheria • Lower respiratory system disorders o Bronchiolitis o Pneumonia o Pertussis o Tuberculosis • Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) o Asthma o Cystic fibrosis o Lung cancer • Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) o Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) o Emphysema o Chronic asthma • Vascular disorders which are: o Pulmonary oedema o Pulmonary emboli STEP 3: Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory System (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world • Pharyngitis o It is an inflammation of the throat or pharynx. o It is often referred to as a sore throat. o Acute pharyngitis can result in very large tonsils which cause trouble swallowing and breathing. o Some cases are accompanied by a cough or fever. o Most acute cases are caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, fungal infections, or irritants such as pollutants or chemical substances. • Epiglottitis o A very rapidly progressive infection causing inflammation of the epiglottis and tissues around the epiglottis o The infection is usually caused by bacteria and is contracted through the respiratory tract • Rheumatic fever o An inflammatory disease that may develop two to three weeks after bacterial(streptococcal) infection o It is common in children • Diphtheria o It is an acute bacterial disease that usually affects the tonsils, throat, nose or skin. STEP 4: Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory System (15 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Bronchiolitis o Inflammation of the bronchioles due to infections especially viral o More prominent in individuals with asthma history and cigarette smoking • Pneumonia o Inflammation of lung with accompanying fluid build up o Much of pneumonia seen clinically is caused by bacteria (Streptococcus Pneumonia). o Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is most common to immune compromised patients • Pertussis o Pertussis, commonly known as "whooping cough," is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by bacteria • Tuberculosis o Is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis o It can be inactive or active o It is most prominent to HIV/AIDS patients and other immune compromised patients. o Is more characterised by chronic cough and night sweats • Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) o Cystic fibrosis, lung cancer and asthma belongs to OPD o Both may cause obstruction and inflammation o Asthma ▪ Periodic episodes of reversible bronchial obstruction in people with hypersensitive airways ▪ Histamine and leukotriene released from mast cells due to allergens like dust and cigarette smoke are the main cause • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) o Is the irreversible progressive obstruction of air flow in lungs o Includes: o Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) ▪ Chronic inflammation of mucus membrane ▪ This results in a chronic, deep, productive cough ▪ It

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Male Reproductive System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 26 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 26: Structure and Functions of the Male Reproductive System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Male Reproductive System • Explain the Composition of Male Reproductive System • Describe Structure and Functions of the Male Reproductive System • Explain the Process of Spermatogenesis Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer • Handout 26.1:The sperm cell and semen SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition and composition of Male | | |10minutes |Brain storming|Reproductive System | |3 | 55minutes |Presentation |Structure and Functions of the Male | | | |Small Group |Reproductive System | | | |Discussion | | |4 |40 minutes |Presentation |Spermatogenesis | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Composition of Male Reproductive System (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is the composition of male reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Male reproductive system: Is the genital system, reproductive system organs and tissues involved in the production and maturation of gametes and in their union and subsequent development as offspring. • The male reproductive system consists of the testes and a series of ducts and glands. o Sperm are produced in the testes by a process of spermatogenesis and are transported through the reproductive ducts: epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra o The reproductive glands produce secretions that become part of semen, the fluid that is ejaculated from the urethra. o These glands are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. STEP 3: Structures and Functions of Male Reproductive System (55 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the structures and functions of the male reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Structures of the male reproductive system • Testes • Epididymis • Dactus deferens (vas deferens) • Ejaculatory ducts • Seminal vesicles • Prostate gland • Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands • Urethra-penis Functions of the male reproductive system • Testes o The testes are located in the scrotum, a sac of skin between the upper thighs. o Internally is divided in to lobes o Each lobe contains several seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis takes place. o Among the produced spermatogonia are sertoli cells which produce inhibin hormone when stimulated by testosterone o Between the loops of the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells which produce testosterone when stimulated by luteinizing hormone from anterior pituitary gland o Testosterone is responsible for maturation of sperm and secondary male characteristics. • Epididymis o It is a tube about 6m long that is coiled in the posterior surface of each testis. o Within it the sperm complete the maturation and their flagella become functional. o Smooth muscle of the wall of epididymis propels the sperm to dactus deferens • Dactus deferens (vas deferens) o Extends from the epididymis in the scrotum on its own side into the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal. o Spermatic cord is a connective tissue sheath that contains the ductus deferens, testicular blood vessels, and nerves o Inguinal canal is a natural weak spot where most of hernia is formed in men. o The smooth muscle layer of the ductus deferens contracts in waves of peristalsis as part of ejaculation • Ejaculatory ducts o Each of the two ejaculatory ducts receives sperm from the ductus deferens and the secretion of the seminal vesicle on its own side. o Both ejaculatory ducts empty into the single urethra • Seminal vesicles o The paired seminal vesicles are posterior to the urinary bladder o Their secretion contains fructose to provide an energy source for sperm and is alkaline to enhance sperm motility. o The duct of each seminal vesicle joins the ductus deferens on that side to form the ejaculatory duct. • Prostate gland o A muscular gland just below the urinary bladder o It surrounds the first inch of the urethra as it emerges from the bladder o The glandular tissue of the prostate secretes an alkaline fluid that helps maintain sperm motility. o The smooth muscle of the prostate gland contracts during ejaculation to contribute to the expulsion of semen from the urethra • Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands o They are located below the prostate gland and empties to the urethra o Their alkaline secretion coats the interior of the urethra just before ejaculation, which neutralizes any acidic urine that might be present. • Urethra-penis o The urethra is the last of the ducts through which semen travels, and its longest portion is enclosed within the penis. o The penis is an external genital organ; its distal end is called the glans penis and is covered with a fold

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 27 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 27: Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • Session 22; Structures and functions of the male reproductive system. Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Male Reproductive Disorder • List Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System. • Explain the Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Brain storming| Common Disorders of the Male | | |20 minutes |Presentation |Reproductive System | |3 |25minutes |Presentation. |Explanation of the Common Disorders | | | | |of the Male Reproductive System | |4 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System (20 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the common disorders of the male reproductive system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Male reproductive system disorders • Its infections that affect the reproductive tract, which is part of the Reproductive System o For males these infections are at the penis, testicles, urethra or the vas deferens. o The course of these disorders could be bacterium, virus, fungus or other organism. o Some infections are easily treatable and can be cured, some are more difficult, and some are non-curable such as AIDS and herpes Common disorders of the male reproductive system • Testicular cancer • Prostate disorders o Prostate cancer • Erectile Dysfunction • Sexually transmitted diseases STEP 3: Explanation of the Common Disorders of the Male Reproductive System (25 minutes) • Testicular cancer o It is the most common cancer in males between the ages of 20 and 35. o An early sign of testicular cancer is a mass in the testis • Prostate disorders o Because the prostate surrounds part of the urethra, any infection, enlargement, or tumour can obstruct the flow of urine. o Acute and chronic infections of the prostate are common in postpubescent males, often in association with inflammation of the urethra. o Symptoms may include fever, chills, urinary frequency, frequent urination at night, difficulty in urinating, burning or painful urination, low back pain, joint and muscle pain, blood in the urine, or painful ejaculation o Prostate cancer ▪ Is the leading cause of death from cancer in men ▪ Treatment for prostate cancer may involve surgery, cryotherapy, radiation, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy • Erectile Dysfunction o Erectile dysfunction (ED), previously termed impotence, is the consistent inability of an adult male to ejaculate or to attain or hold an erection long enough for sexual intercourse. o Many cases of impotence are caused by insufficient release of nitric oxide (NO), which relaxes the smooth muscle of the penile arterioles and erectile tissue. o Other causes of erectile dysfunction include ▪ Diabetes mellitus, physical abnormalities of the penis, ▪ Systemic disorders such as syphilis, ▪ Vascular disturbances (arterial or venous obstructions), ▪ Neurological disorders ▪ Surgery ▪ Testosterone deficiency ▪ Drugs (alcohol, antidepressants, antihistamines, antihypertensive, narcotics, nicotine, and tranquilizers). ▪ Psychological factors such as anxiety or depression, fear of causing pregnancy, fear of sexually transmitted diseases • Sexually transmitted diseases o The sexually transmitted diseases of the male reproductive system will be discussed with the sexually transmitted diseases of the female reproductive system STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes) • The common disorders of the male reproductive system are testicular cancer, prostate disorders, erectile dysfunction and sexually transmitted diseases • Erectile dysfunction is a big problem to the society and is caused by a number of factors. STEP 6: Evaluation (5 minutes) • Define male reproductive disorder • List common disorders of the male reproductive system. • What is the early sign of testicular cancer? • What are the causes of erectile dysfunction? References Kumar, A. et al (2004). Robbins Basic Pathology. WB: Saunders. Spector, T.D. & Axford, J. S. (1999). Introduction to General Pathology. Edinburgh: Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D.& Tate, P. (2003). Anatomy and Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Shier, A., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2004). Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Standring, S. (2008). Grays’s Anatomy The anatomical basis of clinical practice. United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone Elservier. Thibodeau, G. A., & Patton, K. T. (1999). Anatomy & Physiology. Saint Louis: Mosby, Von Hoffman Press, Inc. Tortora, G.J & Derrickson, B (2009). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition, USA, John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA Walter, J.B, & Talbot, I. C. (1996). General Pathology. New York: Churchill Livingstone Waugh, A. & Grant, A. (2006). Ross and Willson Anatomy and physiology in Health and illness. United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone Elservier ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Human Anatomy and Physiology topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260