PST Level 4 Semester 1

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Urinary System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 30 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 30: Structure and Functions of the Urinary System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Urinary System • List Structures of Urinary System • Describe the Structures of the Urinary System • Explain the Functions of the Structures of the Urinary System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition and Type of Structures of| | |25 minutes |Brainstorming |the Urinary System | |3 | |Presentation |Structures of the Urinary System | | |50minutes | | | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation |Functions of the Structures of the | | | |Buzzing |Urinary System | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of the Urinary System (25 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is urinary system? | |What are the structures of urinary system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Urinary system: is the system which regulates the content of blood plasma to maintain the homeostasis of the internal fluid environment within normal limits (control the composition of blood and blood volume) • It removes waste products from the blood, of which many of them are toxic • The principal organ of the urinary system is the kidney • The accessory organs include the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra • The following are the structures of the urinary system: o Kidneys o Ureters o Urinary bladder, o Urethra STEP 3: Structures of the Urinary System (50 minutes) The kidneys • Are bean shaped organs with a medial indentation, • located in the upper abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum • Are embedded in adipose tissue that acts as a cushion and is in turn covered by a fibrous connective tissue membrane called the renal fascia, which helps hold the kidneys in place • The renal artery enters the kidney, and the renal vein and ureter emerge • The outer tissue layer is called the renal cortex, which is made of renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules • The inner tissue layer is the renal medulla, which is made of loops of henle and collecting tubules • The renal medulla consists of wedge-shaped pieces called renal pyramids. • The tip of each pyramid is its apex or papilla • Renal pelvis is a cavity formed by the expansion of the ureter within the kidney at the hilus • Funnel shaped extensions of the renal pelvis; called calyces enclose the papillae of the renal pyramids • Urine flows from the renal pyramids into the calyces, then to the renal pelvis and out into the ureter Nephron o Nephron is the structure and function unit of the kidney o It is well associated with the blood vessels and the urine is formed there o Each nephron has two major portions: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule Renal corpuscle ▪ Consists of a glomerulus surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule. ▪ The glomerulus is a capillary network that arises from an afferent arteriole and empties into an efferent arteriole. ▪ The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent arteriole, which helps maintain a fairly high blood pressure in the glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule ▪ Is the expanded end of a renal tubule and encloses the glomerulus. ▪ The fluid that is formed from the blood in the glomerulus will eventually become the urine The renal tubule o Continues from Bowman’s capsule and consists of the proximal convoluted tubule (in the renal cortex), loop of Henle (in the renal medulla), and distal convoluted tubule (in the renal cortex). o The distal convoluted tubules from several nephrons empty into a collecting tubule. o Several collecting tubules then unite to form a papillary duct that empties urine into a calyx of the renal pelvis. [pic] Source: F.A.Davis (2007). Figure 30.1: Structure of the kidney o Blood flow and urine formation o Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery and flows downstream to afferent arterioles and emerge through efferent arterioles, flowing to upper stream to renal veins, and finally to inferior vena cava o The formation of urine involves three major processes ▪ The first is glomerular filtration, which take place in the renal corpuscles and ▪ The second and third are tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion, which take place in the renal tubules. o Accessory organs of the urinary system o The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are responsible for the periodic elimination of urine and do not change the composition or amount of urine. o Ureter ▪ Each ureter extends from the hilus of a kidney to the lower, posterior side of the urinary bladder ▪ The smooth muscle in the wall of the ureter contracts in peristaltic waves to propel urine toward the urinary bladder. ▪ As the bladder fills, it expands and compresses the lower ends of the ureters to prevent backflow of urine. o Urinary bladder ▪ It is a muscular sac

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Urinary System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 31 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 31: Common Disorders of the Urinary System Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 60 minutes assignment. Prerequisites • Session 30; Structures and functions of the Urinary system Students Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Disorders of the Urinary System • List common Disorders of the Urinary System • Explain the Common Disorders of the Urinary System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer. SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation |Definition and Types of Common | | | |buzzing |Disorders of the Urinary System | |3 | |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Urinary | | |25 minutes |Small Group |System | | | |Discussion | | |4 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |6 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition and Types of Common Disorders of the Urinary System (10 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is the disorder of the urinary system? | |What are the types of the urinary system? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Urinary system disorder: A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection in any part of your urinary system your kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Most infections involve the lower urinary tract — the bladder and the urethra. The common disorders of the urinary tract disorders are: o Urinary Incontinence and retention o Urinary tract infections o Inflammatory disorders o Obstructive disorders o Tumours o Renal failure o Chronic renal failure Step 3: Common disorders of the urinary system (25 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |Explain the common disorders of the urinary system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Urinary Incontinence and retention o Incontinence is due to loss of voluntary control of bladder o Retention (residual urine) may be due to anatomical defects and is usually corrected by catheterization • Urinary tract infections o These includes Urethritis, Cystitis and Pyelonephritis o The common causes are: ▪ Ascending infection – women > men ▪ Prostatic hypertrophy with urinary retention ▪ Incomplete emptying of bladder with urinary stasis ▪ Pregnancy associated with stasis Blood borne pathogens • Inflammatory disorders o Glomerulonephritis • Mainly is due to proteinuria, edema, oliguria and autoimmune diseases o Nephrotic syndrome • One loses the capacity to retain protein, especially albumin • May be due to toxic agents like mercury, toxic drugs like aminoglycosides and diseases like diabetes o Obstructive disorders o Kidney stones (Renal calculi) • Accumulation of calcium, uric acid, urine crystals • Mostly due to prolonged dehydration and infections • Is presented by fever, chills, renal colic o Tumours • Formation of masses • Is presented by haematuria o Renal failure o Acute renal failure • Abrupt decrease in renal function • Usually reversible • May be caused by Glomerular disease, Severe pyelonephritis and Ischemia o Chronic renal failure • Get slow progressive loss of neurons • Usually irreversible • May be due to toxins, glomerular disease, hypertension STEP4: Key Points (5 minutes) • The common urinary tract disorders include urinary incontinence/retention, infections, inflammatory disorders, obstructive disorders and renal failure • Urinary tract infections are most prominent among other disorders of the urinary system • It is important to treat urinary tract infections as early as possible to avoid the possibilities of kidney stones. STEP 5: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What is the disorder of the urinary system? • What are the common disorders of the urinary system? • What are the causes of the common disorders of the urinary system? Step 6: Assignment (10 minutes) |Activity: Take Home Assignment (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE learners in groups or individual. | | | |ASK the learners to work on the following assignment | | | |Explain common disorders of the urinary tract system | | | |ALLOCATE time for learners to do the assignment and submit | | | |REFER learners to recommended references | References Kumar, A. et al (2004). Robbins Basic Pathology. WB: Saunders. Spector, T.D. & Axford, J. S. (1999). Introduction to General Pathology. Edinburgh: Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D.& Tate, P. (2003). Anatomy and Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Shier, A., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2004). Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Standring, S. (2008). Grays’s Anatomy The anatomical basis of clinical practice. United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone Elservier. Thibodeau, G. A., & Patton, K. T. (1999). Anatomy & Physiology. Saint Louis: Mosby, Von Hoffman Press, Inc. Tortora, G.J & Derrickson, B (2009). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition, USA, John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA Walter, J.B, & Talbot, I. C. (1996). General Pathology. New York: Churchill Livingstone

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Endocrine System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 32 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 32: Structure and Functions of Endocrine System Total Session Time: 120 minutes+ 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Endocrine System • Explain the Structure of Endocrine System • Explain the Functions of Endocrine System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |20 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Endocrine System | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 | |Presentation |Structure of Endocrine System | | |45 minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 | 30minutes|Presentation |Functions of Endocrine System | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Endocrine System (20 minutes) • Endocrine system is the regulating system of the body by the chemical substances called hormone, which are produced by endocrine glands • The endocrine glands are ductless to sense that, they have no ducts to take the hormones to specific sites • Instead, hormones are secreted directly to the capillaries and circulate in the blood throughout the body • The hormones produced are divided in to three groups: o Amines ▪ These simple hormones are structural variations of the amino acid tyrosine ▪ Examples are thyroxine from thyroid gland), epinephrine and norepinephrine (rom adrenal medulla) o Proteins ▪ These hormones are chains of amino acids ▪ Examples are calcitonin from thyroid gland, insulin from the pancreas, growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland o Steroids ▪ These are hormones where by cholesterol is a precursor ▪ Examples are cortisol from adrenal cortex and oestrogen from the ovaries. STEP 3: Structure of Endocrine System (45 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |What are the glands which form the endocrine system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • The endocrine system is the combination of endocrine glands which secrete hormones • The endocrine glands are: o Pituitary gland o Thyroid gland o Parathyroid gland o Adrenal gland o Pancreas o Ovaries o Testes Pituitary gland • It hangs from the hypothalamus and is enclosed by the sphenoid bone • It is divided into posterior pituitary gland and anterior pituitary gland o Posterior pituitary gland. ▪ The two hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland until needed ▪ These hormones are anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin) and oxytocin and both are peptides. ▪ Antidiuretic hormone increases the reabsorption of water by kidney tubules, which decreases the amount of urine formed. ▪ The water is reabsorbed into the blood, so as urinary output is decreased, blood volume is increased, which helps maintain normal blood pressure ▪ Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy and stimulates release of milk from the mammary glands. o Anterior pituitary gland ▪ The hormones produced are regulated by releasing hormone from the hypothalamus. ▪ The hormones produced are growth hormones (somatotropin), thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. ▪ Growth hormones promote growth as increases amino acids transport and protein synthesis. ▪ Thyroid stimulating hormone stimulates the normal growth of the thyroid and the secretion of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). ▪ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the secretion of cortisol and other hormones by the adrenal cortex. ▪ Secretion of ACTH is increased by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus. ▪ Prolactin is responsible for lactation. More precisely, prolactin initiates and maintains milk production by the mammary glands. ▪ Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles; that is, it initiates egg development in cycles of approximately28 days. ▪ Luteinizing hormone is responsible for ovulation, the release of a mature ovum from an ovarian follicle. Thyroid gland • The thyroid gland is located on the front and sides of the trachea just below the larynx • The structural units of the thyroid gland are thyroid follicles, which produce thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine(T3) and iodine is necessary foe production of these hormones o Thyroxine and T3 ▪ Thyroxine (T4) and T3 have the same functions: regulation of energy production and protein synthesis, which contribute to growth of the body and to normal body functioning throughout life. ▪ Thyroxine and T3 increase cell respiration of all food types (carbohydrates, fats, and excess amino acids) and thereby increase energy and heat production. o Calcitonin ▪ Decreases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from the bones to the blood, thereby lowering blood levels of these minerals. ▪ This function of calcitonin helps maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphate and also helps maintain a stable, strong bone matrix. Parathyroid gland • They produce a hormone called parathyroid hormone. • Parathyroid hormone is an antagonist of calcitonin • It increases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from bones to the blood, thereby raising their blood levels. And also increase their absorption from

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of Endocrine System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 33 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 33: Common Disorders of Endocrine System Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • Session 32:Structure and functions of endocrine system Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Disorders of Endocrine System • List Common Disorders of Endocrine System • Explain the Common Disorders of the Endocrine System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation |Definition and types of Common | | | |buzzing |Disorders of Endocrine System | |3 | |Presentation |Common Disorders of Endocrine System| | |35minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition and Types of Common Disorders of Endocrine System (10minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are endocrine system disorders | |What are the types of common disorders of endocrine system? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Common disorders of endocrine system: Endocrine disorders may be subdivided into three groups: • Endocrine gland hypo secretion which leading to hormone deficiency • Endocrine gland hypersecretion which leading to hormone excess • Tumours which benign or malignant of endocrine glands Types of common disorders of endocrine system • Disorders of the growth hormone: o Dwarfism o Giantism (Gigantism) • Disorders of the thyroxine o Goiter o Cretinism o Myxedema o Grave’s disease • Diabetes Mellitus • Disorders of the adrenal cortex o Cushing’s syndrome STEP 2: Common Disorders of Endocrine System (35minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the common disorders of endocrine system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Disorders of the Growth hormone: • Dwarfism o Hypo secretion of GH results in pituitary dwarfism, in which the person mayattain a final height of only 3 to 4 feet but will have normal body proportions. o Growth hormone can now be produced using genetic engineering and may be used to stimulate growth in children with this disorder • Giantism (Gigantism) o Is the hyper secretion of growth hormone o The long bones grow excessively and the person may attain a height of 8 feet. o In adults, the hyper secretion of growth hormone due to pituitary tumour can result to acromegaly, a condition where by the long bones cannot grow due to closure of epiphyseal discs. Disorders of the thyroxine • Goiter o It is caused by dietary deficiency of iodine o In an attempt to produce more thyroxine, the thyroid cells become enlarged, and hence the thyroid gland enlarges and becomes visible on the front of the neck. • Cretinism o It is a condition of hypo secretion of thyroxine in new born o It retards both physical and mental development. • Myxedema o It is a condition of hypo secretion of thyroxine in adults o This decreases metabolic rate and hence general body weakness • Grave’s disease o This is autoimmune disease which result to hypersecretion of thyroxine hormone Diabetes Mellitus • There are two types of diabetes mellitus: o Type 1 is called insulin-dependent diabetes and its onset is usually in childhood (juvenile onset). ▪ Is characterized by destruction of the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans and a complete lack of insulin o Type 2 is called non–insulin-dependent diabetes, and its onset is usually later in life (maturity onset). ▪ Insulin is produced but cannot exert its effects on cells because of a loss of insulin receptors on cell membranes. ▪ Risk factors include a family history of diabetes and being overweight. Control may not require insulin, but rather medications that enable insulin to react with the remaining membrane receptors. Disorders of the adrenal cortex • Addison’s disease o Itis a result of hypo secretion of the adrenal cortical hormones. o Atrophy of the adrenal cortex decreases both cortisol and aldosterone secretion. o Deficiency of cortisol is characterized by hypoglycaemia, decreased gluconeogenesis, and depletion of glycogen in the liver. ▪ Consequences are muscle weakness and the inability to resist physiological stress. o Aldosterone deficiency leads to retention of potassium and excretion of sodium and water in urine. ▪ The result is severe dehydration, low blood volume, and low blood pressure. • Cushing’s syndrome o Itis a result of hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex, primarily cortisol. o The cause may be a pituitary tumour that increases ACTH secretion or a tumour of the adrenal cortex itself. o Excessive cortisol promotes fat deposition in the trunk of the body, while the extremities remain thin. o The skin becomes thin and fragile, and healing after injury is slow. STEP 3: Key Points (5 minutes) • Dwarfism and gigantism are the disorders of

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structures and Functions of the Central Nervous System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 34 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 34: Structures and Functions of the Central Nervous System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Nervous system, Autonomic Nervous system, Somatic nervous system, and Nerves • List Components of the Nervous System • Explain the Structure of Central Nervous System. • State Functions of Nervous System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer • Handout 34.1:Synapse and synaptic transmission SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition and Components of the | | |20 minutes |Brainstorming |Nervous System | |3 | |Presentation |Nerve Tissue | | |20 minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 | |Presentation |Central Nervous System | | |35 minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |5 |30 Minutes |Presentation |Functions of the Nervous System | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition and Components of the Nervous System (20minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is the nervous system autonomic nervous system? | |What is somatic nervous system, and nerves? | |What are the components of the nervous system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Nervous System • Refers to the part of the body that coordinates its voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts • It is the system that conducts stimuli from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord and that conducts impulses back to other parts of the body. Autonomic Nervous System • The part of the nervous system that regulates the involuntary activity of the heart, intestines, and glands, including digestion, respiration, perspiration, metabolism, and blood-pressure modulation. Somatic Nervous System • The part of the peripheral nervous system that transmits signals from the central nervous system to skeletal muscle and from receptors of external stimuli, thereby mediating sight, hearing and touch. Nerves • Nerves are bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that act as information highways to carry signals between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body. Components of the nervous system: • The Central Nervous System o Brain o Spinal cord • Peripheral Nervous system is divided into: o Autonomic nervous system o Peripheral nervous system STEP 3: Nerve Tissue (20 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the parts of neuron? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons or nerve fibers • All neurons have the same physical parts. o The cell body contains the nucleus and is essential for the continued life of the neuron. o Dendrites are processes (extensions) that transmit impulses toward the cell body. o The one axon of a neuron transmits impulses away from the cell body. o It is the cell membrane of the dendrites, cell body, and axon that carries the electrical nerve impulse. o Axons and dendrites are collectively called Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and are covered by a membrane called myelin sheath. o Node of Ranvier is the spaces between adjacent Schwann cells or segments of myelin sheath. o Neurolema are the nuclei and cytoplasm of Schwann cells. • Synapse. o It is the small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites/cell body of the next neuron. o The synaptic knob of presynaptic axon contains chemical neurotransmitters that are released to the synapse on the arrival of an impulse. o Synapses ensure one way impulse transmission o The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse, combines with specific receptor sites on the cell membrane of the postsynaptic neuron, and there generates an electrical impulse that is, in turn, carried by this neuron’s axon to the next synapse. o Example of neurotransmitter is acetylcholine found at the neuromuscular junction. • Types of neurons o Neurons are classified in to three groups which are : ▪ sensory (afferent) neuron, ▪ motor (efferent) neuron ▪ Interneuron. o Sensory neurons ▪ Carry impulses from receptors to the central nervous system. ▪ Receptors detect external or internal changes and send the information to the CNS in the form of impulses by way of the afferent neurons. ▪ The central nervous system interprets these impulses as a sensation. o Motor neurons ▪ Carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors. ▪ The two types of effectors are muscles and glands. ▪ In response to impulses, muscles contract or relax and glands secrete. o Interneurons ▪ They are found entirely within the central nervous system. ▪ They are arranged so as to carry only sensory or motor impulses, or to integrate these functions. ▪ Some interneurons in the brain are concerned with

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 35 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 35: Structure and Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • Session 34; Structure and Functions of the Central Nervous System Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Autonomic Nervous System • Explain the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System • State the Functions of Autonomic Nervous System at Different Organs Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation |Definition of the Autonomic Nervous | | | |Brainstorming |System | |3 | |Presentation |Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous | | |45 minutes |Small Group |System | | | |Discussion | | |4 | |Presentation |Functions of the Autonomic Nervous | | |50 minutes |Small Group |System at Different Organs | | | |Discussion | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Autonomic Nervous System (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is autonomic nervous system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of peripheral nervous system and consists of motor parts of spinal nerves and cranial nerves • The peripheral nervous system relays information to and from the central nervous system • Autonomic nervous system is made up of visceral motor neurons to the smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands of which muscles will either contract or relax and glands will either increase or decrease secretions STEP 3: Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (45 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous systems? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • The ANS has two divisions which are sympathetic and parasympathetic. o Often, they function in opposition to each other. • Sympathetic division o The sympathetic division brings about widespread responses in many organs. o The sympathetic division is dominant in stressful situations, which include anger, fear, or anxiety, as well as exercise. o There are synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons o One preganglionic neuron often synapses with many postganglionic neurons to many effectors. This anatomic arrangement has physiological importance. • Parasympathetic division o The parasympathetic division dominates in relaxed (non-stress) situations to promote normal functioning of several organ systems. o In the parasympathetic division, one preganglionic neuron synapses with just a few postganglionic neurons to only one effector. With this anatomic arrangement, much localized (one organ) responses are possible. • In autonomic pathways there are two synapses: one between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons, and the second between postganglionic neurons and visceral effectors. o Acetylcholine is the transmitter released by all preganglionic neurons, both sympathetic and parasympathetic and is inactivated by cholinesterase in postganglionic neurons. o Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons all release acetylcholine at the synapses with their visceral effectors. o Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons release the transmitter norepinephrine at the synapses with the effector cells. o Norepinephrine is inactivated by either catechol-Methyltransferase (COMT) or monoamine oxidase (MAO), or it may be removed from the synapse by reuptake. STEP 4: Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System at Different Organs (50 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the functions of autonomic nervous system to different body | |organs? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | |Organ |Sympathetic response |Parasympathetic | | | |response | |Heart (cardiac muscle) |Increase rate |Decrease rate (to | | | |normal) | |Bronchioles (smooth |Dilate |Constrict (to normal) | |muscle) | | | |Iris (smooth muscle) |Pupil dilates |Pupil constrict (to | | | |normal) | |Salivary glands |Decrease secretion |Increase secretion to | | | |normal | |Stomach and intestine |Decrease peristalsis |Increase peristalsis | |(smooth muscle) | |for normal digestion | |Stomach and intestine |Decrease secretion |Increase secretion for| |(glands) | |normal digestion | |Internal anal sphincter |Contracts to prevent |Relaxes to permit | | |defecation |defecation | |Urinary bladder (smooth |Relaxes to prevent |Contracts for normal | |muscle) |urination |urination | |Internal urethral |Contracts to prevent |Relaxes to permit | |sphincter |urination |urination | |Liver |Changes glycogen to |None | | |glucose | | |Pancreas |Secrete glucagon |Secrete insulin and | | | |digestive enzymes | |Sweat glands |Increase secretion |None | |Adrenal glands |Increase secretion of|None | | |epinephrine and | | | |norepinephrine | | STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes) • Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of peripheral nervous system and consists of

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of the Nervous System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 36 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 36: Common Disorders of the Nervous System Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • Session 30 and 31; Structure and Functions of the Central And Autonomic Nervous System Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Disorder of Nervous System • List Disorders of Nervous System • Explain the Parkinson’s Disease and Alzheimer’s Disease • Explain the Neuroleptic Disorders • Explain the Hydrocephalus Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector (OHP) and computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |15 Minutes |Presentation |Disorders of Nervous System | | | |Buzzing | | |3 | |Presentation |Parkinson’s Disease and Alzheimer’s | | |30 minutes |Small Group |Disease | | | |Discussion | | |4 | |Presentation |Neuroleptic Disorders | | |45 minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |5 |15minutes |Presentation |Hydrocephalus | | | |Brainstorming | | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Disorders of Nervous System (15 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK learners to pair and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes| | | |What is nervous disorder? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let others pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using content below | Nervous system disorders are the disorders of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body. The common nervous system disorders: • Psychosis • Depression • Schizophrenia • Epilepsy • Multiple sclerosis • Parkinson’s disease • Alzheimer’s disease • Hydrocephalus STEP 3: Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer ’s disease (30 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Parkinson’s disease o This is a disorder of the basal ganglia o The cause is unknown, and though there is a genetic component in some families, itis probably not the only factor o The disease usually begins after the age of 60 o Neurons in the basal ganglia that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine begin to degenerate and die, and the deficiency of dopamine causes specific kinds of muscular symptoms. ▪ Tremor, or involuntary shaking, of the hands is probably the most common symptom. ▪ The accessory movements regulated by the basal ganglia gradually diminish, and the affected person walks slowly without swinging the arms. • Alzheimer’s disease o This is the genetic disorder of the nervous system. o It is due to presence of abnormal fibrous proteins in the cells of cerebral cortex in areas important for memory and reasoning. o The symptoms include ▪ Memory lapse and slight personality changes. ▪ As the disease progresses, there is total loss of memory, reasoning ability, and personality, and those with advanced disease are unable to perform even the simplest tasks or self-care. STEP 4: Neuroleptic Disorders (45 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are neuroleptic disorders? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Neuroleptic disorders are mixtures of symptoms, especially anxiety and depressive ones. • Psychosis and Depression o They are due to imbalance of chemicals in the brain o Psychosis is mostly presented by; ▪ Hallucinations ▪ Delusions ▪ Emotional withdraw ▪ Lack of attention to personal hygiene o Depression is presented by: ▪ Feeling empty ▪ Inability to enjoy anything ▪ Hopelessness ▪ Loss of sexual desire ▪ Loss of warm feelings for family or friends ▪ Feelings of self-blame or guilt ▪ Loss of self esteem • Schizophrenia o It is defined by a group of characteristic positive and negative symptoms of deterioration in social, occupational, or interpersonal relationships. o It distorts thinking and perception capabilities. o It is not an excess of dopamine. o Schizophrenia can be diagnosed by the following symptoms: ▪ Hallucinations ▪ Delusions ▪ Disorganized speech ▪ Disorganized or catatonic behaviour ▪ Negative symptoms • Epilepsy o Epilepsy is a recurrent seizures of not more than 24 hours o Seizure is a clinical manifestation of synchronized electrical discharges of neurons. o Some seizures can be originated outside the brain due to fever, infection, syncope, head trauma, hypoxia, toxins and cardiac arrhythmias. o Status epileptics (SE) is the continuous convulsion lasting longer than 30 minutes or occurrence of serial convulsions between which there is no return of consciousness o Seizures can be due to cerebral damage or cerebral malformation like hydrocephalus o They are mostly presented by convulsions. • Multiple sclerosis o Refers to autoimmune demyelinating disease o It involves deterioration of the myelin

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure, Functions and Common Disorders of Lymphatic System Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 37 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 37: Structure, Functions and Common Disorders of Lymphatic System Total Session Time: 120 minutes+ 60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • None Students Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Lymphatic System • Explain the Organization of Lymphatic System • Explain the Structures Lymphatic System • Describe Functions of Lymph System • List the Common Disorders of the Lymphatic System Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Projector • Computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |30 minutes |Presentation |Definition and Organization of | | | |Brainstorming |Lymphatic System | |3 | |Presentation |Structures of the Lymphatic System | | |25 minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 |20 minutes |Presentation |Functions of the Lymphatic System | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |20 minutes |Presentation |Common Disorders of the Lymphatic | | | |Brainstorming |System | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |8 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition and Organization of Lymphatic System (30minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is lymphatic system? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Lymphatic system: A network of tissue, organs, and vessels that help to maintain the body’s fluid balance, cleanse the body fluid of foreign matter and provide immune cells for defence. • Composition of Lymphatic System o Lymph, the fluid that the system collects from the interstitial spaces of the tissue and returns to the bloodstream. o Lymphatic plexuses, networks of small lymphatic vessels, lymphatic capillaries, that originate in the extracellular spaces of most tissues. o Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics), a nearly body wide network of thin- walled vessels with abundant valves, originating from lymphatic plexuses along which lymph nodes are located. o Lymph nodes, small masses of lymphatic tissue through which lymph is filtered on its way to the venous system. o Lymphocytes, circulating cells of the immune system that react against foreign materials. o Lymphoid tissue, sites that produce lymphocytes, such as that found in the walls of the digestive tract; in the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes; and in myeloid tissue in red bone marrow. o The lymphoid tissue is primarily involved in immune responses, and consists of lymphocytes and other white blood cells enmeshed in connective tissue through which the lymph passes. o The lymphatic system differs from the circulatory system in that the lymphatic do not form a closed ring or circuit. o Instead, begin blindly in the intercellular spaces of the soft tissues of the body. o Specialized lymphatic organs are the tonsils, thymus, and spleen. [pic] Source: Tortora, G.J (2009). Figure 35.1: The lymphatic system STEP 3: Structures of Lymphatic System (25 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the structures of lymphatic system? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • The organs of the lymphatic system are tonsils, thymus and spleen. • Tonsils o Masses of lymphoid tissue located in a protective ring under mucous membranes in the mouth and back of the throat. o Help protect against bacteria that may invade tissues in the area around the openings between the oral and nasal cavities. o They are: ▪ Palatine tonsils; located on each side of the throat. ▪ Pharyngeal tonsils; are near the posterior openings of the nasal cavity. ▪ Lingual tonsils; located near the base of the tongue o The tonsils serve as the first line of defence from the exterior and as such are subject to chronic infection (tonsillitis). • Thymus o The thymus is located inferior to the thyroid gland. o In the foetus and infant, the thymus is large and extends under the sternum o The thymus hormones are necessary for immunological competence by enabling the T-cells to participate in the recognition of foreign antigens and provide immunity. o This capability of T cells is established early in life and then is perpetuated by the lymphocytes themselves. o The new-born’s immune system is not yet fully mature, and infants are more susceptible to certain infections than are older children and adults. o Usually by the age of 2 years, the immune system matures and becomes fully functional. • Spleen o Spleen is located in the left hypochondrium directly below the diaphragm, above the left kidney and descending colon, and behind the fundus of the stomach o It is roughly ovoid o Is surrounded by a fibrous capsule with inward extensions that roughly divide the organ into compartments o Arteries leading into each compartment are surrounded by dense masses (nodules) of developing lymphocytes o Near the outer regions of each compartment is tissue called red pulp made up of fine reticular fibres submerged in blood that comes from nearby arteries. o After passing through the reticular meshwork, blood

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Cardinal Signs of Inflammation 279 Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 38 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 38: Cardinal Signs of Inflammation 279 Background There is currently an ever increasing demand for pharmaceutical personnel in Tanzania. This is due to expanding investment in public and private pharmaceutical sector. Shortage of trained pharmaceutical human resource contributes to poor quality of pharmaceutical services and low access to medicines in the country (GIZ, 2012). Through Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) the Pharmacy Council (PC) together with Development Partners (DPs) in Germany and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs) worked together to address the shortage of human resource for pharmacy by designing a project named “Supporting Training Institutions for Improved Pharmaceutical Services in Tanzania” in order to improve quality and capacity of PTIs in training, particularly of lower cadre pharmaceutical personnel. The Pharmacy Council formed a Steering committee that conducted a stakeholder’s workshop from18th to 22ndAugust 2014 in Morogoro to initiate the implementation of the project. Key activities in the implementation of this project included carrying out situational analysis, curriculum review and harmonization, development of training manual/facilitators guide, development of assessment plan, training of trainers and supportive supervision. After the curricula were reviewed and harmonized, the process of developing standardised training materials was started in August 2015 through Writer’s Workshop (WW) approach. The approach included two workshops (of two weeks each) for developing draft documents and a one-week workshop for reviewing, editing and formatting the sessions of the modules. The goals of Writers Workshops were to build capacity of tutors in the development of training materials and to develop high-quality, standardized teaching materials. The training package for pharmacy cadres includes a Facilitator Guide, Assessment plan and Practicum. There are 12 modules for NTA level 4 making 12 Facilitator guides and one Practicum guide. Acknowledgement The development of standardized training materials of a competence-based curriculum for pharmaceutical sciences has been accomplished through involvement of different stakeholders. Special thanks go to the Pharmacy Council for spearheading the harmonization of training materials in the pharmacy after noticing that training institutions in Tanzania were using different curricula and train their students differently. I would also like to extend my gratitude to St. Luke Foundation (SLF)/Kilimanjaro School of Pharmacy –Moshi for their tireless efforts to mobilize funds from development partners. Special thanks to John Snow Inc (JSI), Deutsche GesellschaftFür Internationale Zusammenarbeit (Giz), Merck Kgaa, BoehringerIngelheimGmbhand Bayer Pharma Ag and action medeor.V for the financial and technical support. Particular thanks are due to those who led this important process to its completion, Mrs Stella M. Mpanda Director, Childbirth Survival International, and Members from the secretariat of National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) for facilitating the process. Finally, I very much appreciate the contributions of the tutors and content experts representing PTIs, hospitals, and other health training institutions. Their participation in meetings and workshops, and their input in the development of this training manual/facilitators guide have been invaluable. These participants are listed with our gratitude below: Mr.Wilson A.Mlaki Director Saint Luke Foundation Mr.Samwel M. Zakayo Pharmacy Council Ms. Ester A. Tuarira MUHAS Ms. Tumaini H. Lyombe MUHAS Mr, Wensaa E. Muro KSP Ms. Dilisi J. Makawia KSP Ms. JuliethKoimerek KSP Rev.Baraka A.M. Kabudi MEMS Institute Ms. Rose Bulilo CEDHA Ms. Diana H. Gamuya CEDHA Dr.Melkiory C. Masatu CEDHA Dr.Benny Mboya CEDHA Mr. Habel A. HabelCity College of Health and Allied Sciences Ms. Zaina Msami Meru District Council Director of Human Resources Development Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elders and Children Introduction Module Overview This module content is a guide for tutors of Pharmaceutical schools for training of students. The session contents are based on sub-enabling outcomes and their related tasks of the curriculum for Basic Technician Course in Pharmaceutical Sciences. This module content is for anatomy and physiology. The module sub-enabling outcomes and their related task are indicated in the basic technician certificate in pharmaceutical science (NTA level 4) curriculum. Target Audience This module is intended for use primarily by tutors of pharmaceutical schools. The module’s sessions give guidance on the time, activities and provide information on how to teach the session. The sessions include different activities which focus on increasing students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes. Organization of the Module The module consists of thirty eight (38) sessions; each session is divided into several parts as indicated below: • Session Title: The name of the session • Total Session Time: The estimated time for teaching the session, indicated in minutes • Pre-requisites: A module or session which needs to be covered before teaching the session. • Learning Tasks: Statements which indicate what the student is expected to learn by the end of the session • Resources Needed: All resources needed for the session are listed including handouts and worksheets • Session Overview: The session overview box lists the steps, time for each step, the activity or method used in each step and the step title • Session Content: All the session contents are divided into steps. Each step has a heading and an estimated time to teach that step as shown in the overview box. Also, this section includes instructions for the tutor and activities with their instructions to be done during teaching of the contents • Key Points: Key messages for concluding the session contents at the end of a session This step summarizes the main points and ideas from the session, based on the learning tasks of the session • Evaluation: The last section of the session consists of short questions based on the learning tasks to check the understanding of students. • Handouts: Additional information which can be used in the classroom while teaching or later for students’ further learning. Handouts are used to provide extra information related to the session topic that cannot fit into the session time. Handouts can be used by the students to study material