CRT04101 Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Disorders Of Female Reproductive System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Disorders Of Female Reproductive System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Definition and Types of Female Reproductive Disorder Female reproductive disorder List common disorders of the female reproductive system. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) Disorders Of Female Reproductive System Getting regular exercise, avoiding caffeine, salt, and alcohol may bring relief Endometriosis Breast cancer Ovarian cancer Cervical cancer Vulvo-vaginal Candidiasis Gonorrhoea In females, infection typically occurs in the vagina, often with a discharge of pus Syphilis Genital Herpes The blisters disappear and reappear in most patients, but the virus itself remains in the body Key points Evaluation Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define Female Reproductive Disorder List Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System. Explain the Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Definition and Types of Female Reproductive Disorder What are the female reproductive disorder Female reproductive disorder Its infections that affect the reproductive tract which is part of the Reproductive System. Reproductive tract infections can be in either the upper reproductive tract (fallopian tubes, ovary and uterus), and the lower reproductive tract (vagina, cervix and vulva) List common disorders of the female reproductive system. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) Endometriosis Breast cancer Ovarian cancer Cervical cancer Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sexually Transmitted Diseases Gonorrhoea Syphilis Genital Herpes Genital Warts Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive System What are common disorders of the female reproductive system? Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) It is a cyclical disorder of severe physical and emotional distress. Disorders Of Female Reproductive System It may be presented by oedema, weight gain, breast swelling and tenderness, abdominal distension, backache, joint pain, constipation, skin eruptions, fatigue and lethargy, greater need for sleep, depression or anxiety Getting regular exercise, avoiding caffeine, salt, and alcohol may bring relief Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) It is a more severe syndrome in which PMS-like signs and symptoms do not resolve after the onset of menstruation. Endometriosis Is characterized by the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. It can cause inflammation, pain, scarring, and infertility. Symptoms include premenstrual pain or unusually severe menstrual pain. Breast cancer Generally is not painful until it becomes quite advanced Any lump, no matter how small, should be reported to a physician at once Disorders Of Female Reproductive System Among the factors that increase the risk of developing breast cancer is a family history of breast cancer, null parity (never having borne a child) or having a first child after age 35, previous cancer in one breast, exposure to ionizing radiation, such as x-rays, excessive alcohol intake and cigarette smoking. Ovarian cancer Risk factors associated with ovarian cancer include age (over age 50), race (whites are at highest risk), family history of ovarian cancer, more than 40 years of active ovulation, null parity, a high-fat and low-fibre Cervical cancer Starts with cervical dysplasia; a change in the shape, growth, and number of cervical cells. The cells may either return to normal or progress to cancer. Increased risk is associated with having a large number of sexual partners, having first intercourse at a young age and smoking cigarettes. Vulvo-vaginal Candidiasis Candida albicans commonly grows on mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. It is the most common form of vaginitis inflammation of the vagina. Candidiasis is characterized by severe itching, a thick, yellow and cheesy discharge, a yeasty odour and pain. Sexually Transmitted Diseases A sexually transmitted disease (STD) is one that is spread by sexual contact. It is in both male and female reproductive systems Chlamydia Is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis Disorders Of Female Reproductive System In males, urethritis is the principal result, causing a clear discharge, burning on urination, frequent urination, and painful urination. In 70% of females with chlamydia, symptoms are absent, but chlamydia is the leading cause of pelvic inflammatory disease. Gonorrhoea Gonorrhoea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Males usually experience urethritis with profuse pus drainage and painful urination. Complication: salpingitis can cause infertility In females, infection typically occurs in the vagina, often with a discharge of pus Up to 50% of infected females may harbour the disease without any symptoms Syphilis Syphilis, caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, is transmitted through sexual contact or exchange of blood, or through the placenta to a foetus. Disorders Of Female Reproductive System In primary stage, there may be a painless sores called chancre and a signs and symptoms such as a skin rash, fever, and aches in the joints and muscles usher in the secondary stage Genital Herpes Genital herpes is an incurable STD. Type II herpes simplex virus causes genital infections, producing painful blisters on the prepuce, glans penis, and penile shaft in males and on the vulva or sometimes high up in the vagina in females. The blisters disappear and reappear in most patients, but the virus itself remains in the body Genital Warts Warts are an infectious disease caused by viruses. Human papillomavirus (HPV) causes genital warts, which is commonly transmitted sexually. Disorders Of Female Reproductive System Patients with a history of genital warts may be at increased risk for cancers of the cervix, vagina, anus, vulva, and penis. There is no cure for genital warts. Key points Severe physical and emotional distress can cause premenstrual syndrome. Cigarette smoking and excess alcohol taking are the main causes of many cancers including those of the female reproductive system. child bearing at older age, earlier sexual intercourse and multiple partners as may cause cancers of the female reproductive system. Evaluation Define female reproductive disorder List common disorders of the female reproductive system. What are the

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Structure and Functions of CV-system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Structure and Functions of CV-system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Definition and Organization of Cardiovascular System Circulatory system: Cardiovascular system Organisation of the Cardiovascular System The heart can be thought of as a pair of following muscular pumps: Structure and Functions of CV-system Structure of the Human Heart Covering of the Heart Chambers of the Heart Ventricles Valves of the Heart Blood Supply to the Heart These arteries deliver oxygen to both the heart muscle and the nerves of the heart When the interruption lasts longer, that part of the heart muscle dies!!! …….. Key Points Evaluation Structure and Functions of Cardiovascular system Definition and Organization of Cardiovascular System What is circulatory system? What is cardiovascular system? Circulatory system: An organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), gases (such as oxygen and CO2) , hormones, blood cells, , etc. to and from cells/tissue in the body, and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. The main role of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, gases, to/from cells/tissues of the body. Circulatory system is composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. Humans, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries). Cardiovascular system The system that include the heart and the blood vessels Organisation of the Cardiovascular System The main components of the cardiovascular system are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels Blood circulates within a fast, high capacity system made up of: The heart, which is the central pump and main motor of the system; Arteries, which lead away from the heart and carry the blood to the peripheral parts of the body. Veins which return the blood to the heart. The heart can be thought of as a pair of following muscular pumps: One pump feeding a minor loop (pulmonary circulation), which serves the lungs and oxygenates the blood, The other pump feeding a major loop (systemic circulation), which serves the rest of the body With limited exceptions, each loop is a closed system of tubes, so that blood by itself does not usually leave the circulation From the centre to the periphery, the vascular tree shows three main modifications. Structure and Functions of CV-system The arteries increase in number by repeated bifurcation and by sending out side branches, in both the systemic and the pulmonary circulation. The aorta, which carries blood from the heart to the systemic circulation, gives rise to about 4 × 106 arterioles and four times as many capillaries. The arteries also decrease in diameter, although not to the same extent as their increase in number, so that a hypothetical cross-section of all the vessels at a given distance will increase in total area with increasing distance from the heart. The blood flow is faster near the heart than at the periphery. Structure and Functions of CV-system Venules are vessels which return blood from the periphery, converge on each other forming a progressively smaller number of veins of increasingly larger size. As with arteries, the hypothetical total cross-sectional area of all veins at a given level reduces nearer to the heart. Eventually, only the two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, open into the heart from the systemic circulation. A similar pattern is found in the pulmonary circulation, but here the vascular loop is shorter and has fewer branch points, and consequently, the number of vessels is smaller than in the systemic circulation. Structure of the Human Heart SIZE and SHAPE:The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ It is about 10 cm long and it is about the size of the owner‘s fist It weighs about 300g Location of the Heart Lies in the mediastinum, behind the body of the sternum; approximately two thirds of its mass is to the left of the midline of the body and one third to the right Posteriorly the heart rests on the bodies of thoracic vertebrae five through eight Apex lies on the diaphragm, pointing to the left Base lies just below the second rib Boundaries of the heart are clinically important as an aid in diagnosing heart disorders SURFACE ANATOMY OF HEART Covering of the Heart Heart is made up of three distinct layers Epicardium: the outer layer of heart which provides protection against friction which is divided into Fibrous pericardium: a tough, loose – fitting inextensible sac ii. Serous pericardium: parietal layer lies inside the fibrous pericardium and visceral layer (pericardium) adheres to the outside of the heart pericardial fluid separates the two layers Myocardium: thick, contractile middle layer Endocardium: delicate inner layer of endothelial tissue Chambers of the Heart The heart is divided into four chambers, the two atria and the two ventricles Atria Two superior chambers (the atria), known as receiving chambers, since they receive blood from veins Myocardial wall of each atrium is not very thick, since little pressure is needed to move blood to such a small distance The right atrium receives venous blood from the body through inferior and superior vena cava, then pumps it the right ventricle The left atrium receive oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle Ventricles Two lower chambers(Ventricles)are known as pumping chambers, since they push blood into the large network of vessels Ventricular myocardium is thicker than the myocardium of the atria, since great force must be generated to pump blood outside the heart Since the left Ventricle pumps blood via Aorta to the whole body, its walls are thicker than those of right Ventricle (which pumps blood to the lung) Valves of the Heart These are mechanical devices that permit the flow of blood in one direction only. Atrioventricular (AV) valve:

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Stomach and Intestines CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Stomach and Intestines using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Structure of the Pharynx and Oesophagus Stomach and Intestines The oesophagus has 4 constrictions where adjacent structure produce impression It has four layers; from outside: Structure and Functions of the Stomach The stomach: The most dilated part of the gastrointestinal tract Structure of the Stomach The stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium Blood supply of the stomach; a rich arterial supply, arise from the celiac trunk and its branches. Functions of GIS Functions of the Stomach Structure and functions of the Small Intestines The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve Duodenum is the first section of the small intestine The jejunum is the middle section of the small intestine The ileum is the final section of the small intestine There are, however, subtle differences between the two Structure and Functions of the Large Intestine The following are the parts of the large intestine: If defecation is delayed for a prolonged period, constipation and hardened faeces results The anus is an opening at the opposite end of the digestive tract from the mouth Key points evaluation Structure and Functions of Stomach and intestines Structure of the Pharynx and Oesophagus Pharynx: A tube through which a bolus passes when moved from the mouth to the oesophagus by the process of deglutition The pharynx is divided into three parts namely o Nasopharynx o Oropharynx o Laryngopharynx The Oropharynx is important for digestive system The wall of the pharynx consists of three layers These are the Mucosa, Middle layer (Fibrous tissue) and Outer layer consisting of Smooth muscles involved in swallowing When food enters the pharynx swallowing is no longer under voluntary control Stomach and Intestines The oesophagus is a narrow muscular tube about 25 centimetres long diameter of 2cm, which starts at pharynx at the back of the mouth It passes through the thoracic diaphragm, and ends at the cardiac orifice of the stomach It lies in the median plane in the thorax in front of the vertebral column behind the trachea and the heart. The oesophagus has 4 constrictions where adjacent structure produce impression 1st at the beginning approximately 15cm from the incisor teeth and caused by the cricopharyngeus muscles – upper oesophageal sphincter 2nd where it crossed by the arch of aorta 22.5cm from the incisor teeth 3rd where it crossed by the left main bronchus 27.5cm from the incisor 4th Where it passes through the diaphragm – lower oesophageal sphincter At the top of the oesophagus, is a flap of tissue called the epiglottis that closes during swallowing to prevent food from entering the trachea (windpipe) It has four layers; from outside: o The adventitia o Muscular layer; the muscles are striated (voluntary) in the upper third and mixed (striated & smooth) in the middle and smooth (involuntary) in the lower third There are two layers: The inner is circular The outer is longitudinal o Sub-mucosa layer o Mucosa layer which is made up of stratified squamous epithelium Arterial blood supply of the oesophagus is through oesophageal arteries, branches of thoracic aorta, inferior phrenic arteries and the left gastric branch of the celiac artery Venous drainage is through the azygos and hemiazygos veins Structure and Functions of the Stomach What is a stomach? The stomach: The most dilated part of the gastrointestinal tract Has a J-like shape Positioned between the abdominal oesophagus and the small intestine, the stomach is in the epigastric, umbilical and left hypochondrium regions of the abdomen Its shape and size varies from person to person; even within the same individual its size and shape change from time to time depending on its food contents and the moisture of the body and in adult capacity range from 1.0 to 1.5 litre Structure of the Stomach The stomach is divided for descriptive purposes into four regions by arbitrary lines drawn on its external surface which are o The outlet of the stomach (pyloric orifice) is marked on the surface of the organ by the pyloric constriction and surrounded by a thickened ring of gastric circular muscle (the pyloric sphincter) The pyloric orifice is just to the right of midline in a plane that passes through the lower border of vertebra LI (the trans pyloric plane) Other features of the stomach include: o The greater curvature, which is a point of attachment for the gastro splenic ligament and the greater omentum o The lesser curvature, which is a point of attachment for the lesser omentum o The cardial notch, which is the superior angle created when the oesophagus enters the stomach o The angular incisure, which is a bend on the lesser curvature The stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium The epithelium forms numerous tube like gastric pits, which are the opening of the gastric glands The epithelial cells of the stomach are of five types The first type is surface mucous cells which produce mucus, is on the surface and lines the gastric pits The remaining four cell types are in the gastric glands They are mucous neck cells which produce mucus; parietal (oxyntic) cells which secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor needed for vitamin B12 absorption; Chief (zymogenic) cells which produce pepsinogen and endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones STOMACH Blood supply of the stomach; a rich arterial supply, arise from the celiac trunk and its branches. Most of the blood is supplied by anastomoses formed along the lesser curvature by the right and left gastric arteries and, along the greater curvature, by the right and left gastro omental artery (gastroepiploic artery) The fundus and upper body of stomach receive blood from the short and posterior gastric arteries branches of the splenic artery Venous drainage is through gastric veins parallel the arteries in position and

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Skull-Structure And Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Skull-Structure And Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic bony function of the the of The Eight bones (i) FRONTAL : The (ii) OCCIPITAL : The (iii) SPHENOID : The (iv) ETHMOID : The (v) PARIETAL : The (vi) TEMPORAL : There are 14 bones in the (i) ZYGOMATIC : The (ii) LACRIMAL : (iii) NASAL : The (iv) INFERIOR (v) PALATINE: The (vi) VOMER: The (vii) MAXILLA: The (viii) MANDIBLE: External Surface of Cranial Base Skull-Structure And Functions CT Internal Surface of Cranial Base The Anterior Cranial Fossa The Middle Cranial Fossa The Posterior Cranial Fossa SCALP Functions of the Skull SKULL-STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS bony that its hape.  Skull is the Framework that gives the head its characteristic shape function of the protect and the tissues of rly the The skull is protective to the soft vital structures/organs of the head, particularly brain. the The Skull consists of Cranium bony box housing the brain) and face. of in cranium the The skull is composed 22 bones, in cranium and 14 in face. The Eight bones (1) Frontal (2) Occipital (3) Sphenoid (4) Ethmoid of the Cranium are :- (5) Two Parietal bones (6) Two Temporal bones (i) FRONTAL : The frontal bone forms the forehead , the anterior (front) part of the cranial vault and the roof of the orbits (eye sockets). Inside the bone, just behind the eyebrows are the frontal sinuses. two air spaces called (ii) OCCIPITAL : The occipital bone forms the posterior (back) part of the floor and vault of the cranium. It is the bone which supports the head upon the spinal column. The spinal cord leaves the cranium through an opening in the occipital bone called the foramen magnum (iii) SPHENOID : The sphenoid bone is the central part of the base of the cranium. It forms part of the orbits, transmits the optic nerve and supports the posterior part of the maxilla.It is bat-shaped bone The sphenoid air sinuses lie in this bone. The pituitary gland lies in a bony socket called the sella turcica, located on the superior aspect of the sphenoid bone. Dental Tip: When a patient is seated in the dental chair, the headrest should support the occipital bone and thereby support the entire head. (iv) ETHMOID : The Ethmoid bone lies between the eyes and extends from the frontal bone to the sphenoid bone. It forms the anterior part of the skull, the medial wall of each orbit, part of the nasal septum and the roof of the nose. It transmits the olfactory passes through cribriform plate Nerve that (v) PARIETAL : The Parietal bones forms large part of the a cranial extend frontal vault and from the bone to the occipital bone. The two bones join at the midline on the top of the cranium and form the sagittal suture. From this suture, these bones extend down and out to about the level of the top of the external ear where they meet the temporal bones. (vi) TEMPORAL : Temporal bones complete the sides and part of the base of the cranium. These bones contain organs of hearing and equilibrium. The external acoustic meatus in the side of each bone forms a passage from the external ear to the middle ear which lies within each bone. There are 14 bones in the (i) Mandible (1) (ii) Maxillae (2) (iii) Zygomatic Bones (2) (iv) Lacrimal Bones (2) (v) Nasal Bones (2) (vi) Inferior conchae (2) (vii) Palatine Bones (2) (viii) Vomer (1) face. (i) ZYGOMATIC : The right and left zygomatic bones form the lower and outer edges of each orbit and that part of each zygomatic arch nearest the eye. The Zygomatic bone and Zygomatic process of the temporal bone form the Zygomatic arch. The anterior edge of the zygomatic bone joins the maxilla. That part of the maxilla which joins the zygomatic bone is called the zygomatic process. (ii) LACRIMAL : The paired (right and left) Lacrimal bones form small parts of the medial walls the orbits. of The lacrimal bones transmits the naso-lacrimal duct from the eye to the nose or nasal fossa. (iii) NASAL : The nasal bones (right and left) are long, thin pieces of bone that form the upper part of the bridge of the nose. The anterior lower part cartilage of the nasal septum is composed of (iv) INFERIOR CONCHAE: The inferior nasal conchae (right and left) are scroll like bones lying horizontally along the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The bony elements of the middle and superior conchae are extensions of the lateral parts of the ethmoid bones. (v) PALATINE: The palatine bones (right and left) join in the midline to form the posterior part of the palate . hard Palatine bones also form part of the floor and lateral walls of the nasal cavity and part of the floor of the orbits. (vi) VOMER: The vomer forms the inferior part of the nasal septum, the vertical partition separating the right and left nasal cavities. (vii) MAXILLA: The right and left maxillary bones forms the upper jaw and palate of the mouth. The two halves are fused form the upper jaw. at the intermaxillary suture to (viii) MANDIBLE: The horse shoe- shaped bone forming the lower jaw, articulating with the skull at the temporomandi – -bular joint. Mandible is the largest, strongest face. and lowest bone in the External Surface of Cranial Base The external aspect of the cranial base or basicranium features The alveolar arch of the maxillae (supporting the maxillary teeth), The palatine processes of the maxillae, The palatine, Sphenoid, Vomer, Temporal Occipital bones. The hard palate (bony palate) is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillae anteriorly and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones posteriorly. Skull-Structure And

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Respiratory system disorders CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Respiratory system disorders using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: What are the common disorders/infections of respiratory systems? Respiratory disorders and infections: Upper respiratory tract infections Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world Epiglottitis What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? Bronchiolitis Tuberculosis Vascular disorders which are: Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections in the world Define common disorder of respiratory system What are the common disorders of the lower respiratory system?? Common Disorders of the Respiratory System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define Common Respiratory System Disorder List Common Respiratory System Disorders Explain the Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract Explain the Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract What are the common disorders/infections of respiratory systems? Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Respiratory disorders and infections: A medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, It includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and lung cancer Upper respiratory tract infections Common cold Pharyngitis Epiglottitis Rheumatic fever Diphtheria Lower respiratory tract infections Bronchiolitis (in young children) Pneumonia Pertussis (whooping cough) Tuberculosis Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) Acute bronchitis Acute asthma Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) Emphysema Chronic asthma Vascular disorders which are: Pulmonary oedema Pulmonary emboli What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory System Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world Pharyngitis It is an inflammation of the throat or pharynx. It is often referred to as a sore throat. Acute pharyngitis can result in very large tonsils which cause trouble swallowing and breathing. Some cases are accompanied by a cough or fever. Most acute cases are caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, fungal infections, or irritants such as pollutants or chemical substances. Epiglottitis A very rapidly progressive infection causing inflammation of the epiglottis and tissues around the epiglottis The infection is usually caused by bacteria and is contracted through the respiratory tract Rheumatic fever An inflammatory disease that may develop two to three weeks after bacterial(streptococcal) infection It is common in children Diphtheria It is an acute bacterial disease that usually affects the tonsils, throat, nose or skin. What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory System Bronchiolitis Inflammation of the bronchioles due to infections especially viral More prominent in individuals with asthma history and cigarette smoking Pneumonia Inflammation of lung with accompanying fluid build up Much of pneumonia seen clinically is caused by bacteria (Streptococcus Pneumonia). Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is most common to immune compromised patients Pertussis Pertussis, commonly known as "whooping cough," is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by bacteria Tuberculosis Is caused It can be inactive or active It is most prominent to HIV/AIDS patients and other immune compromised patients. Is more characterised by chronic cough and night sweats Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) Cystic fibrosis, lung cancer and asthma belongs to OPD Both may cause obstruction and inflammation Asthma Periodic episodes of reversible bronchial obstruction in people with hypersensitive airways Histamine and leukotriene released from mast cells due to allergens like dust and cigarette smoke are the main cause Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Is the irreversible progressive obstruction of air flow in lungs Includes: Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis)  Chronic inflammation of mucus membrane  This results in a chronic, deep, productive cough  It is due to long term smoking, certain environmental factors such as textile dust fibers  Sometimes is due to complication of CF and TB Emphysema  Permanent & irreversible destructive disease of alveolar  Is due to any chronic lung condition e.g. pollution Chronic asthma  Irreversible bronchial obstruction Lung cancer Vascular disorders which are: Pulmonary oedema  Fluid collection (oedema) in all lung tissues which affects gas exchange and lung expansion Pulmonary emboli  Clot of foreign matter that occludes artery in pulmonary system impact. Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections in the world Upper respiratory tract infections include pharyngitis and epiglottitis Lower respiratory tract disorders are: Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Pertussis Tuberculosis Key Points Define common disorder of respiratory system Identify common disorders of upper respiratory tract Identify common disorders of lower respiratory tract List organs of lower respiratory system evaluation What are the common disorders of the lower respiratory system?? assignment ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Respiratory system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Respiratory system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: What is respiratory system? The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? Respiratory system Nose Paranasal sinuses: Functions of the nose Pharynx Functions of the pharynx Larynx Functions of the larynx What are the structures and functions of lower respiratory system? . The differences btw left and right lungs Bronchial Tree Lungs and pleural membranes Alveoli Respiratory system is responsible with exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in human body What are the functions of respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Respiratory System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define the Respiratory System Explain the Structure and Function of the Upper Respiratory Tract Explain the Structure and Function of the Lower Respiratory Tract What is respiratory system? Definition of Respiratory System The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body The respiratory system may be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Upper Respiratory System Respiratory system The organs of the upper respiratory system are located outside of the thorax and consists of the nose, pharynx and larynx Nose Is made up of bone and cartilage covered with skin, and lined with hairs within the nostrils. The hairs help to block dusts entry The two nasal cavities are within the skull, separated by the nasal septum, which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer The nasal mucosa is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which produce mucus The mucus produced help to trap bacteria and particles from the air There are three shelve like bones called conchae project from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity In the upper nasal cavities are the olfactory receptors, which detect vaporized chemicals that have been inhaled Paranasal sinuses: Are air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones Are lined with ciliated epithelium, and the mucus produced drains into the nasal cavities. The functions of the paranasal sinuses are to lighten the skull and provide more vibrating air for the voice. Paranasal sinuses Functions of the nose Respiration (breathing) The nose humidify, warm, filter and clean the air Reception and elimination of secretions from the nasal mucosa, paranasal sinuses, and nasolacrimal ducts Olfaction (smelling) – is the organ of sense of smell It aids speech- this is enhanced by the presence of paranasal sinuses Pharynx It is a muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and anterior to the cervical vertebrae. It is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity.  It is continuous with lining of the nose and consists of ciliated columnar epithelium and the intermediate layer is fibrous tissue. Oropharynx lies behind the oral cavity.  It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with lining of the mouth and oesophagus. Laryngopharynx also known as the hypopharynx, this is also lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium. Functions of the pharynx Passageway for air and food Warming and humidifying air Protection Taste Facilitates Hearing (through eustachian tube) The pharynx is also important in vocalization and Speech Larynx The larynx houses the vocal folds, and is situated just below the pharynx between the root of the tongue and upper end of the trachea. The larynx consists of cartilages attaches to each other by ligaments and membranes. The framework of the larynx is formed by nine cartilages (e.g. thyroid, epiglottis) connected to one another by muscles, ligaments and membranes. The epiglottisis the uppermost cartilage. During swallowing, the larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis closes over the top to prevent entry of saliva and food to the larynx Functions of the larynx Speaking (speech)  Sound production is primarily done by the focal folds Respiration (is the air passageway between pharynx and the trachea) Swallowing  The epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into the larynx What are the structures and functions of lower respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Lower Respiratory System Respiratory system The organs of the lower respiratory system are located inside of the thorax and consists of the trachea, bronchial tree and lungs Trachea The trachea is about 4 to 5 inches ( about 15cm) long and extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi. The wall of the trachea contains 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage, which keep the trachea open. The gaps in these incomplete cartilage rings are posterior, to permit the expansion of the oesophagus when food is swallowed. The mucosa of the trachea is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells. . The differences btw left and right lungs The differences btw left and right lungs are: 1.Right lung has 3 lobes where as left lung has 2 loves 2.Right lung has two fissures (horizota&oblique fissures) where as left lung has only one oblique fissure Left lung has cardiac notch where as Right lung do not have Bronchial Tree Are the branches of trachea that enters the lungs (primary/principal bronchi) Their structures are like those of trachea, with C-shaped cartilages and ciliated epithelium Within the lungs, the primary bronchus branches to secondary bronchi that forms lobes of each lungs (three in right lung, two in the left lung) The further branching of the bronchial tube is called bronchial tree The smallest branches are called bronchioles(

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Physiology Of Muscular System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Physiology Of Muscular System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic What is Anatomy and Physiology? What is physiology ? What is Pathophysiology? A: What is muscular system ? Anatomy and physiology of the MSS Characteristics of muscles Functions of the muscular system B: Types of muscles Smooth muscles 3. Skeletal muscles Other classifications. Skeletal muscle is divided into… Muscle Fatigue : is the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated stimuli. Defining of terms Skeletal muscle fiber The myofibrils contain 2 kinds of protein filaments . Striation pattern of skeletal muscles M line contains three proteins Muscle response C: Types of muscle contraction. i) Skeletal muscle contraction Major Events(steps) of skeletal-muscle contraction Physiology Of Muscular System Types of skeletal muscle contractions Oxygen Debt Role of Calcium in muscle contraction Involuntary muscle movement. ii) Smooth Muscle Contraction iii) Cardiac muscle contraction B. MUSCULAR DISORDERS INTRO… 1.Muscle Atrophy Causes: 2. Muscular Dystrophy The most common types of muscular dystrophy appear to be due to a genetic deficiency of the muscle protein dystrophin. Becker Muscular Dystrophy – is also a sex­linked disorder 3. DISEASES OF MUSCLE TONE ii. Hypotonia – is the muscular disease characterized by decrease in muscle tone. Clinical conditions associated with hypotonia are: 4. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS symptoms Clinical Terms: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM What is Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy and Physiology is the study of the human body. Anatomy is concerned with the structure of a part. For example, the stomach is a J-shaped, pouch like organ. The stomach wall has thick folds, which disappear as the stomach expands to increase its capacity. What is physiology ? Physiology is concerned with the function of a part. For example, the stomach temporarily stores food, secretes digestive juices, and passes on partially digested food to the small intestine. It is a branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of living things and physical and chemical phenomena involved. Physiology is simply the science of life. What is Pathophysiology? Refers to the study of abnormal changes in body functions that are the causes, consequences, or concomitants of disease processes. Components of pathophysiology- Aspects of disease process. Cause(aetiology) Pathogenesis (mechanism of its development) Morphological changes (the structural alterations induced in the cells and organs of the body) Clinical significances (functional consequences of the morphologic changes) A: What is muscular system ? Is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles which permits movement of the body, maintains posture, breathing and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system is controlled by the nervous system by voluntary and involuntary mechanism. Together with the skeletal system it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the body. They are highly integrated Anatomy and physiology of the MSS Musculoskeletal system includes: Bones Joints Muscles Tendons Ligaments Bursae Musculoskeletal system Characteristics of muscles Excitability – Capability to respond to the stimulus carried from the motor neurons. Contractility – ability to contract or shorten its size. Extensibility – Ability to stretch Elasticity – Ability to return to its original length after stretching Functions of the muscular system Locomotion Vasoconstriction and vasodilatation- constriction and dilation of blood vessel Walls are the results of smooth muscle contraction. Peristalsis – wavelike motion along the digestive tract is produced by the Smooth muscle. Cardiac motion Posture maintenance- contraction of skeletal muscles maintains body posture and joint stability Heat generation – about 75% of ATP energy used in muscle contraction is released as heat. B: Types of muscles There are three types of muscle depending on their situation Skeletal muscle Smooth (non-striated) muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscles Also called involuntary muscles, they are found in within the walls of organs and tubular structures such as esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder and blood vessels. Smooth muscle cells contains on one nucleus and no striations. Cardiac muscles Also is an involuntary muscle but it is striated in structure and appearance. Also contains one nucleus per cell. Found in the walls of heart only. 3. Skeletal muscles Also known as the voluntary muscles, the stripped or striated muscles. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei located peripherally. Used to move the skeleton, support of the body, maintain body temperature, protecting internal organs, provide joint stability etc. Other classifications. Depending on Striation Striated muscles i.e. cardiac muscles and skeletal muscles Non striated muscles i.e. smooth muscles Depending on control Voluntary muscles i.e. skeletal muscles Involuntary muscles i.e. smooth and cardiac muscles NB: Voluntary muscles are innervated by somatic nerves while involuntary muscles are innervated by Autonomic nerves. Skeletal muscle is divided into… Type I, ”slow twitch” or Red skeletal muscle fibers , is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color, it can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activities, and can contract for long periods of time (eg. Solues). Type II, “fast twitch” have few mitochondria and myoglobin, reduced ability to carry on aerobic respiration and tend to fatigue rapidly. Designed for speed further divided into type IIa, Type IIx and Type IIb. Muscle Fatigue : is the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated stimuli. A fatigued muscle loses its ability to contract. Muscle fatigue is due to accumulation of lactic acid and ATP exhaustion due to repeated stimulation. Defining of terms Striation: only present in skeletal and cardiac muscles. Absent in smooth muscle. In that they contain sarcomere and are packed in highly-regular arrangement of bundles. Striated muscles is often used in short, intense bursts, where as smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contraction. Nucleus: smooth and cardiac muscles are uni-nucleated(one nucleus per cell), skeletal muscle is multinucleated (several nuclei per cell ). Transverse tubule ( T tubule ): well developed in skeletal and cardiac

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Features of Gastrointestinal Pathologies Dysphagia –difficult in swallowing Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system PEPTIC ulcer Disease Congenital GI malformation Disorders of Gastrointestinal System Features of Gastrointestinal Pathologies Regardless of the cause and type of a disease Gastrointestinal (GI )pathologies have the following presenting features: Abdominal pain Gastrointestinal bleeding Diarrhoea Steatorrhea=fatty stool Melena=Black stool (upper GI bleeding) Haematochezia=(fresh blood in stool) Hematemesis=Vomiting of blood Constipation Nausea Vomiting Dysphagia –difficult in swallowing Odynophagia –painful swallowing Gastroesophageal reflux Anorexia Weight loss Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) The terms heartburn, acid regurgitation, sour stomach, and bitter taste are all used to describe GERD symptoms Reflux occurs when the oesophageal epithelium is exposed to gastric secretions Some degree of gastric reflux is considered normal, but symptoms occur when the mucosa's tolerance to acid is exceeded PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system In addition to the typical symptoms of heartburn or chest pain, extra-oesophageal manifestations of GERD include laryngitis, asthma, and chronic cough GERD develops when acidic gastric contents reflux into the oesophagus and remain there long enough to overcome the resistance of the oesophageal epithelium. PEPTIC ulcer Disease Gastric ulcer Duodenal ulcer Oesophageal cancer Congenital GI malformation Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis Gastric outlet obstruction (pyloric stenosis) … ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES