CRT04101 Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System Primary Excretory System Organs Accessory Excretory System Organs Common Diseases Affecting Excretory System Organs Gland Function Thyroid (1) & Pineal Gland  Triiodothyronine (T3) Other Hormone Producing Organs Hormone Properties Hormonal Regulation Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System The Excretory System: The excretory system is the system of an organism's body that performs the function of excretion, the bodily process of discharging wastes. The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis. The excretory system is essential to one‘s health. Its responsibility is to remove waste from the body. The excretory system is made up of numerous organs that work in unison to ensure that waste is effectively removed from your body. Below are the details of the excretory system organs, along with the roles they play in detoxification. Primary Excretory System Organs Kidneys Kidneys are bean-shaped organs of a reddish brown color that are found in the sides of the vertebral column. Once the body has extracted what it needs from food and drink, it sends the wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys filter the wastes, including urea, salt and excess water, which are flushed out of the body as urine. Wastes in the blood come from tissue breakdown, and from food. After the body takes and uses what it needs, it sends the wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, about the size of a fist. Having atleast one kidney is mandatory for living, unless treated immidietally. Because of the enormous amounts of blood passing through the kidney, kidneys sxtract 180 liters of fluid daily. If we extracted all of the fluid as urine, we would lose nutrients and dehydrate, Kidneys are responsible for filtering the filtrate and returning most of the solutes and water to the blood. Skin The skin performs its excretory function via the sweat glands. These glands produce sweat that contains salt, excess oils, water, and other unnecessary substances which are then excreted out of the body through small pores. Sweating also helps to cool the body during evaporation. Your skin has a very important part in the excretory system. It holds moisture into every part of your body. In the excretory system, the skins job is to regulate one's body temperature. The salt in the skin helps in evaporation of the water off of the body, to cool off one who is hot. Sweat is excreted through sweat glands. Sweating helps the body maintain a cool, consistent temperature, which also helps one maintain homeostasis. Lungs The lungs are very important excretory organs as they expel carbon dioxide from the body via exhalation. The lungs use cells known as alveoli to remove the carbon dioxide from our blood. Otherwise, the carbon dioxide would accumulate and have a detrimental effect to our body. Accessory Excretory System Organs Liver Although considered a secondary, or accessary excretory system organ, the liver plays a vital part in keeping the body clean. Harmful poisons and chemicals that are either produced in the body or consumed are broken down and detoxified by the liver. For example, a bi-product of the metabolic process within the body is ammonia and the liver processes this into urea, a less harmful substance which continues to be filtered and excreted as urine. When we eat fatty foods, the liver orders the gall bladder to release bile into the intestines. The bile then puts the waste products into the intestines. Then the intestines absorb the fats into the blood stream. The liver is then given the blood, and removes all waste products from it as it passes through. The liver removes the iron, which involves red blood cell production. Amino acids are then broken down and passed into the kidney. The kidney uses these to carryout their function in the excretory system. The liver then stores the vitamins, and repeats its cycle. Gallbladder Although the gallbladder does not have a highly significant role to play in the excretory system, it does have a function that assists the overall process. Bile, a liquid produced by the liver to break down waste, is first stored in the gallbladder. When needed, it is discharged into the small intestine whose role is to break down fats, ethanol and other acidic wastes. Urinary Bladder The waste fluid that is created in the liver and collected in the kidney is transferred into the urinary bladder where it is temporarily stored until the individual urinates. The urinary bladder provides a short term solution for storing urine in the body until it is ultimately discharged. After the kidneys filter the fluid, the remaining wastes go to your bladder. The organ stores the urine, and keeps storing it until you can feel it. When you can feel it, it means that the bladder has become full, and you must urinate to release the wastes from your body. Ureters The ureters tubes of smooth muscle fiber transfer liquid waste from the kidneys into the urinary bladder. The urine is moved with peristaltic movements which force the urine away from the kidneys. The ureters also have ureterovesical valves which ensure the waste fluid does not travel back into the kidney. Urethra The urethra runs through the penis in males, and serves as a carrier of semen as well as urine for their ultimate discharge out of the body. The urethra tube is shorter in females and is just above the vaginal opening. Large Intestine Food particles are absorbed into the blood stream via the small intestine. The undigested substances are transferred to the large intestine which essentially serves as a storage organ for the excretory products. The descending, ascending and transverse colons also facilitate

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Organs In Different Body Cavity CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Organs In Different Body Cavity using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Body Cavity Main Body Cavities The Ventral Body Cavities Organs-(Abdominal-Pelvic Cavity) …. Male reproductive organs (prostate, part of ductus deferens). Thoracic Cavity and its Divisions The Mediastinum Regions(subdivision) of mediastinum The middle mediastinum The superior mediastinum The anterior mediastinum Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity CT ORGANS IN DIFFERENT BODY CAVITIES Body Cavity Body cavities: spaces within the body that help protect, separate and support internal organs. Body cavity is any fluid filled space in a multicellular organism. Main Body Cavities The two major cavities of the body are The dorsal cavity The ventral body cavities. The Dorsal Cavity The dorsal body cavity is located near the posterior surface of the body and has two main subdivisions The vertebral canal that contains the spinal cord The cranial cavity that contains the brain The Ventral Body Cavities The ventral body cavity is located near the anterior surface of the body and has two subdivisions The thoracic cavity The abdomino-pelvic cavity The abdomino-pelvic cavity, which is separated by the diaphragm consists of two continuous cavities -The abdominal cavity -The pelvic cavity Organs-(Abdominal-Pelvic Cavity) Abdominal cavity contains Stomach Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Spleen small intestine Kidneys Appendix part of the large intestine. …. The pelvic cavity contains Part of the large intestine Rectum Urinary bladder Female reproductive organs (ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina) Male reproductive organs (prostate, part of ductus deferens). It is important to note that the testes and penis are not located in the ventral body cavity but are outside the body wall. Thoracic Cavity and its Divisions Thoracic Cavity: Space enclosed by the ribs, sternum, and vertebral column The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. This cavity contains three small cavities (potential spaces). The pericardial cavity (peri _around; cardia _ heart). Two pleural cavities (pleura _ side or rib). The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, and each pleural cavity contains a lung. The Mediastinum A broad central partition that separates the two laterally placed pleural cavities. Extends from the sternum to the bodies of the vertebrae and from the superior thoracic aperture to the diaphragm. The organs located in the mediastinum are the heart, thymus gland, oesophagus, trachea and bronchi. The pleural cavities are located on either side of the mediastinum Regions(subdivision) of mediastinum The middle mediastinum The superior mediastinum The anterior mediastinum The posterior mediastinum The middle mediastinum Centrally located in the thoracic cavity. Major Structures found heart, origins of the great vessels, various nerves smaller vessels. The superior mediastinum The superior mediastinum is posterior to the manubrium of the sternum and anterior to the bodies of the first four thoracic vertebrae. The superior mediastinum is continuous with the neck superiorly and with the inferior mediastinum inferiorly. The Major Structures found include: Thymus Right and left brachiocephalic veins Left superior intercostal vein Superior vena cava Arch of the aorta with its three large branches …. Trachea Esophagus Phrenic nerves Vagus nerves Left recurrent laryngeal branch of the left vagus nerve Thoracic duct Other small nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatics The anterior mediastinum Posterior to the body of the sternum Anterior to the pericardial sac. The posterior mediastinum Posterior to the pericardial sac and diaphragm Anterior to the bodies of the mid and lower thoracic vertebrae. Major structures in the posterior mediastinum Esophagus and its associated nerve plexus Thoracic aorta and its branches Azygous system of veins Thoracic duct and associated lymph nodes Sympathetic trunks Thoracic splanchnic nerves Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity The peritoneum is the largest serous membrane in the body The abdominal cavity is lined by peritoneum, which consists of an epithelial-like single layer of cells (the mesothelium) together with a supportive layer of connective tissue. Two layers Parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall. Visceral peritoneum covers suspended organs The peritoneal cavity is a potential space between the parietal peritoneum Contains a small amount of serous fluid CT Abdominal viscera are either intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal Intraperitoneal structures are suspended from the abdominal wall by mesenteries Stomach Liver Gallbladder Spleen small intestine …. Appendix large intestine Rectum Urinary bladder Female reproductive organs (ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina) Male reproductive organs (prostate, part of ductus deferens). CT Structures that are not suspended in the abdominal cavity by a mesentery and that lie between the parietal peritoneum and abdominal wall are retroperitoneal in position includes; The kidneys Ureters Pancreas Great vessels ( aorta and venna cava) ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? 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DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Introduction to pathology CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Introduction to pathology using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic INTRODUCTION TO PATHOLOGY Pathological terminologies (100+ terms) Terms cont. EVOLUTION OF PATHOLOGY PATHOLOGY During this era Papanicolaou in 1930s developed the use of exfoliative cytology for early detection of cervical cancer. Infarction= cellular/tissue death as a result of ischemia/hypoxia Era of gross pathology (AD 1500 to 1800). SUBDIVISIONS OF PATHOLOGY ……. DISEASE DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Dietary excess can the cause of many systemic diseases such as cardiac diseases. Hypersensitivity to various substances can lead to alarming shock-like conditions- anaphylaxis. The blood group Duffy negative confers resistance to infection by Plasmodium vivax. PATHOGENESIS Functional derangement and clinical importance CLASSIFICATIONS OF DISEASES Basing on body response disease can be classified into 4 categories namely :- 3) Degenerative = disease due to aging GENERAL PATHOLOGY INTRODUCTION TO PATHOLOGY By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to: Define pathology Understand evolution of pathology Identify subdivisions of pathology Explain disease development Classify categories of diseases Explain cell injury and cell death Pathological terminologies (100+ terms) Pathogenesis = course of disease = start–> end or terminal stage Necrosis = Irreversible abnormal cell death Apoptosis = programmed cell death Aetiology = cause of disease Ischemia= decreased blood flow to body tissue Hypoxia/hypoxemia= low oxygen content in blood Oxidative stress= imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body Terms cont. Hypoxia= low oxygen supply in bodily tissue ROS= Reactive oxygen species are derivatives of oxygen that result from aerobic respiration eg peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical OR Free radicals= oxygen containing molecules with uneven number of electrons (unstable) Antioxidant= any chemical substance that protects a cell from the damage caused by free radicals eg vitamins (A,C,E & K) , Uric acid, Glutathione, Enzymes ( Catalase) Lesion= an area of abnormal tissue FREE RADICALS V ANTIOXIDANTS EVOLUTION OF PATHOLOGY Evolution of Pathology began with the following concepts from different era : Religious and superstitious beliefs to rational approach (Antiquity to AD 1500). The earliest concepts of disease were the religious and superstitious beliefs that affliction or disease was the outcome of curse or evil eye of spirits. The real practice of medicine began in the 460 to 377 BC (Before Christ). Hippocrates introduced ethical concepts in the practice of medicine and admired/respected by the medical profession by taking Hippocratic oaths at the time of entry into practice of medicine. PATHOLOGY The word pathology is derived from Greek words Pathos=suffering and logos= the study Definitions: It is a branch of medicine which deals with the study of the nature (aetiology) and the course (mechanisms) of disease. It is a scientific study of structure and function of the body in disease. During this era Papanicolaou in 1930s developed the use of exfoliative cytology for early detection of cervical cancer. Era of modern pathology (1960s to dawn of 21st century) The major advances in molecular biology in the field of diagnosis and treatment of genetic disorders, immunology and in cancer. These includes:- The description of the structure of DNA Identification of chromosomes and their numbers Recombinant DNA technique Mammalian cloning Infarction= cellular/tissue death as a result of ischemia/hypoxia Inflammation= local response of vascularized tissue to noxious stimuli that causes cellular injury Inflammatory mediators= chemical substances released by cells in response to stimuli causing inflammation [proteins , peptides, glycoprotein ,cytokines ,prostaglandins(Histamine, ] Era of gross pathology (AD 1500 to 1800). In this era the discovery of science in diagnosis involved studies by dissection of human body, autopsy, and the use of microscope in examining the diseased tissues. Era of technology development and cellular pathology (AD 1800 to 1950s). This era the technology of microscopy was advanced to involve, different staining methods or techniques, the use of electron microscope to examine and view ultra structure of the cell and its organelles SUBDIVISIONS OF PATHOLOGY (1)Human pathology is the largest branch of pathology It is conventionally divided into (a)General pathology Which deals with general principles of disease i.e. is concerned with the basic reaction of cells and tissue to abnormal stimuli that underlies all diseases (b)Systemic pathology Includes study of diseases pertaining to the specific organs and body systems. This examine the specific responses of specialized organs and tissue to more or less well defined stimuli (2) Histopathology used synonymously with anatomic pathology (pathologic) anatomy, or morbid anatomy, is the classic method of study and still the most useful one which has stood the test of time. ……. Histopathology is divided into:- (a) Surgical pathology which deals with study of tissues removed from the living body. (b) Forensic pathology and autopsy work includes the study of organs and tissues removed at post-mortem. (3) Cytopathology includes study of cells shade off from lesions (exfoliative cytology and fine needle aspiration cytology of superficial and deep seated lesions for diagnosis). DISEASE DEVELOPMENT This is loss of ease of body Any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional state of an organism. It is the opposite of health, what is not healthy is diseased The four aspects of a disease process that form the core of pathology are Its cause or aetiology The mechanisms of its development, pathogenesis The structural alterations induced in the cells and organs of the body, morphologic changes The functional consequences of the morphologic changes, clinical significance Introduction to pathology Knowledge or discovery of the primary cause remains the backbone on which a diagnosis can be made, a disease understood or a treatment developed There are two major classes of aetiologic factors o Intrinsic or genetic o Acquired/Environmental factor Genetic factors are clearly involved in some of the common environmentally induced maladies, such as cancers and atherosclerosis The environment may also have profound influences on certain genetic diseases ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Are many and are classified as follows : Physical agents, among these are trauma,

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Term Used in Anatomy and Physiology Is generally divided into three components:- iii.Developmental anatomy Subdivisions of gross anatomy Subdivision of microscopic anatomy Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism Anatomical Position and Planes Upper limbs by the sides with the palms facing anteriorly Anatomical Planes . Transverse planes (horizontal) are planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal planes. Terms of Relationship and Comparison Ventral …. Combined terms describing intermediate positional arrangements Terms of Laterality Structural Organization Levels of Organism Chemical level Tissue level Organ system level CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISM Organization: Metabolism Other characteristics includes Life depend upon the following environmental factors Oxygen: is a gas used in the process of releasing energy from nutrients SUMMARY EVALUATION References INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISM Term Used in Anatomy and Physiology Definition of Terms The word anatomy is derived from a Greek word ( Ana-Tome): meaning cutting up into sections. Anatomy: It is a study of the body structures and physical relationship involved in between body systems. OR Is the study of the structures and relation between body parts. Is generally divided into three components:- i.Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: It is the study of structure as they appear in human body. ii.Microscopic anatomy: It is the study of structures by using microscope.The structures include cells ,tissues and molecules iii.Developmental anatomy It is the study of the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood. Subdivisions of gross anatomy i.Surface anatomy It is the study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures. ii.Regional anatomy It is the study of specific regions of the body iii.systemic anatomy It is the study of specific organ systems Subdivision of microscopic anatomy Cytology: The study of the structural features of cells using microscope. Histology: The study of tissues, which are group of cells and the material surrounding them. Is the study of tissue at microscopic level. Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism Physiology: The science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs and the cells of which they are composed. Pathology: The medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions as well as the structural and functional impairement resulting from disease. Anatomical Position and Planes Anatomical Position All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to the anatomical position. The anatomical position refers to people regardless of the actual position they may be in as if they were standing erect, with their: Head, eyes (gaze), and toes directed anteriorly (forward) Upper limbs by the sides with the palms facing anteriorly Lower limbs close together with the feet parallel and the toes directed anteriorly ANATOMICAL POSITION … Anatomical Planes Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes that intersect the body in the anatomical position. There are many sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes, but there is only one median plane Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism Median (median sagittal) plane is the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the centre of the body, dividing it into right and left halves Sagittal planes are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane. Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism It is helpful to give a point of reference to indicate the position of a specific plane for example, a sagittal plane through the midpoint of the clavicle=mid clavicular line Any plane parallel and near the median plane may be referred to as a Para median plane Frontal (coronal) planes are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to the median plane, dividing it into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portion for example, a frontal plane through the heads of the mandible. . Transverse planes (horizontal) are planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal planes. A transverse plane divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) part for example, a transverse plane through the umbilicus is called transumbilical plane Terms of Relationship and Comparison The following terminologies describe the relationship of parts of the body in the anatomical position and compare the position of two structures relative to each other Anterior In front of, front Posterior After, behind, following, toward the rear Distal Away from, farther from the origin (trunk) Proximal Near, closer to the origin Dorsal Near the upper surface, toward the back Ventral Toward the bottom, toward the belly Superior Above, over or near to the head Inferior Below, under or near to the foot (in relation to other structure) Lateral Toward the side, away from the mid-line Medial Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the side Rostral Toward the front of the head (nose/mouth) Caudal Toward the back, toward the tail …. Cranial Combined terms describing intermediate positional arrangements Inferomedial Nearer to the feet and closer to the median plane for example, the anterior parts of the ribs run inferomedially Superolateral Nearer to the head and farther from the median plane Proximal and distal Directional terms used when describing positions for example, whether structures are nearer to the trunk or point of origin (i.e. proximal) Dorsum Superior or dorsal (back) surface of any part that protrudes anteriorly from the body, such as the dorsum of the foot, hand, penis, or tongue Terms of Laterality Paired structures having right and left members (e.g., the kidneys) are bilateral, whereas those occurring on one side only (e.g., the spleen) are unilateral. Ipsilateral means occurring on the same side of the body e.g. the right thumb and right great toe. Contra-lateral means occurring on the opposite side of

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 CRT04101 Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology Notes Browse 67 study topics in Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology, NTA Level 4, Semester 1. Introduction To Human Anatomy And Organization Of Organism Introduction to pathology Organs In Different Body Cavity Structure and Functions of Epithelial Tissues Bones and Disorders of Connective Tissue A Cell Accessory organs of digestive systems Anatomy of reproductive Organs Blood And Its Functions Blood groups Body Cavities And Membranes Bone Tissue Brain Anatomy and Functions Cardiovascular System Cell Injury Adaptation And Cell Death Cell Structure And Its Functions Central Nervous System Connective Tissues Different Cell Types And Structures Disorders of blood Disorders Of Female Reproductive System Disorders Of Gi Tract Disorders Of Male Reproductive System Endocrine System Epithelial Tissue Female Reproductive System Inflammation And Wound Healing Introduction to Gastrointestinal system Lymphatic system and its diseases Male Reproductive System Muscle Tissue-Structure And Functions Muscles of the thorax Musculoskeletal Musculoskeletal System Nervous System Nervous Tissue Overview Of Muscle Tissues Pathophysiology of CARDIOVASCULAR-SYSTEM PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system Physiology Of Muscular System Respiratory system Respiratory system disorders Skull-Structure And Functions Stomach and Intestines Structure and Functions of CV-system Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissues Structure And Functions Of Urinary System Terminology The Cell: Structure and Functions Thoracic Cage-Structure & Functions Tissues Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions Anatomy and Physiology – Introduction Anatomy and Physiology – Body Functions and Life Processes Anatomy and Physiology – Cell Structure and Functions Anatomy and Physiology – Body Tissues Anatomy and Physiology – Skeletal Anatomy Anatomy and Physiology – Bone Structure, Growth and Skeletal Organization Anatomy and Physiology – Muscular System Anatomy and Physiology – Cardiovascular System and Blood Anatomy and Physiology – Respiratory System Anatomy and Physiology – Digestive System Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility NEXT MODULE →SEMESTER NOTESNTA LEVEL 4 NOTESALL NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility FLEXIBILITY CARDIAC EFFECTS CIRCULATORY EFFECTS PULMONARY EFFECTS The Warm Up Neck Rotation Shoulder Rotation Rock Squat Hamstrings Stretch Arms Back (Chest/Shoulder Stretch) Modified Hurdle (Piriformis Stretch) Lunge (Hip Flexor Stretch) Quadriceps Stretch Calf Stretch What Are Calories? Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE Appropriate exercise increases the strength and endurance of skeletal muscles. Increases in muscular strength are associated with increases in muscle mass; increases in muscular endurance are associated with improved blood flow to the working muscles. These results are achieved by resistance training. Any exercise that causes the muscle to increase its tension, whether or not the muscle actually shortens during contraction, provides an appropriate strengthtraining stimulus. Resistance can be applied to a muscle group by attempting to move an immovable object, by working one muscle group against another, by lifting heavy weights, or by using special strength-training machines and devices. There is a wide selection of strength-training equipment that, when used properly, can increase muscular strength and endurance. It is possible that some of the equipment is more efficient in developing maximal performance, which is important for competitive athletes. But for the average individual, who is training to maintain an acceptable level of muscular fitness, any one device or program is probably about as good as another. Strength and endurance training is done by performing several ―reps‖ (repetitions) of a given exercise, then moving on to another exercise for a different muscle group. Experts generally recommend that exercisers select a resistance that is approximately 65 percent of the maximum they can lift for that particular exercise. This load should allow the completion of 12 reps of that exercise in 24 to 30 seconds. Each group of eight to 12 reps is called a set, and two or three sets of a given exercise are recommended for each training session. The average individual should perform strength and endurance training two to three days per week. Super circuit weight training refers to a program in which running or other aerobic exercises are performed between sets; this training produces aerobic as well as strength benefits. FLEXIBILITY Muscles and tendons can be stretched to improve flexibility (the range of motion at a joint). Flexibility training follows a few, simple principles. To improve range of motion, the muscles and other connective tissue around a joint must be stretched. The preferred stretching technique is a slow increase in the range of motion. The exerciser should feel the muscle stretch, but not to the point of pain. The stretch should be performed gradually, and the body should be held for 10 to 20 seconds in the stretched position and then gradually returned to a relaxed posture. By stretching each muscle group in this fashion as a part of the strengthening and conditioning program, the participant will maintain good flexibility. Bouncing or explosive stretching movements should be avoided, as they can result in muscle or tendon tears. Cardio respiratory effects CARDIAC EFFECTS Regular aerobic exercise training has a direct effect on the heart muscle. The muscle mass of the left ventricle, which is the pumping chamber that circulates blood throughout the body, increases with exercise training. This change means that the heart can pump more blood with each beat. In short, the heart becomes a bigger, stronger, and more efficient pump capable of doing more work with less effort. CIRCULATORY EFFECTS Regular exercise also produces changes in the circulation. As previously discussed, muscle endurance training serves to increase blood flow to the working muscles. This increased blood flow means that more oxygen and fuel can be delivered to the muscle cells. The number of red blood cells, which carry oxygen in the blood, also increases with training, as does blood volume. Taken together, these changes indicate a greater capacity to transport oxygen to the working muscles. PULMONARY EFFECTS The basic function of the lungs is to facilitate the transfer (1) of oxygen from the atmosphere into the blood and (2) of carbon dioxide from the blood into the atmosphere. To accomplish this, air must pass into and out of the lungs, and the respiratory gases must diffuse through the lungs into the circulation and vice versa. Although exercise has not been shown to affect this diffusing ability, exercise training does strengthen the muscles of respiration. This means that a trained individual can move more air through the lungs per time unit, and forced vital capacity (i.e., the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a full inspiration) may be increased. Warming up, conditioning and fatigue. A warm-up is an activity or activities, which prepare you both mentally and physically for further more intense activity or training. It should be continuous movement utilizing a variety of movements, which will result in increased heart rate, core temperature, and dynamic range of motion. In a warm-up you basically want to get the entire body warm, loose, and a little sweat on the forehead. You should now be ready mentally and physically to begin an intense training session. The warm-up should increase your productivity in the work out and also reduce your risk of injury. Purpose: Body movements, increase blood flow to muscles, joints, raise core temperature, active flexibility, teaching/learning of body awareness and control. The warm up activities are a crucial part of any exercise regime or sports training. The importance of a structured warm up routine should not be under estimated when it comes to the prevention of sports injury. The Warm Up An effective warm up has a number of very important key elements. These elements, or parts, should all be working together to minimize the

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function Motor Neuron—Synaptic Cleft—Skeletal Muscle Cell Neuromuscular Junction Disorders ‗ Aerobic Power Anaerobic Power Interval Training The Pulmonary Apparatus The Circulatory System EXCLUSION CRITERIA FOR POTENTIALLY HARMFUL Acquired Disorders Respiratory Considerations Cardiovascular Considerations Heart Disorders Blood Pressure Renal Disorders Heart Rate Stroke Volume Cardiac Output Blood Flow Aerobic Training Anaerobic Training Strength/Endurance Training Power Training Flexibility Training Neuromuscular Coordination Body Composition General Training Principles Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function What Is Neuromuscular Junction? A motor neuron is responsible for causing a skeletal muscle to contract, by stimulating it. The gap or space present between this motor neuron and the skeletal muscle cell is called as a synapse. This synapse, specifically between the skeletal muscle cell and motor neuron is called neuromuscular junction or myoneural. Myo means Muscle and Neural means Nerves. When an impulse travels between this space, muscle contraction happens. There are around 100-500 trillion such connections in the human brain, between two nerves or nerves and glands. In this article we will discuss only the neuromuscular junction. Structure of Neuromuscular Junction As we have read, a neuromuscular junction consists of a neuron and a skeletal muscle cell. The neuron in the combination is referred to as spinal motor neuron. The motor neurons, who originate from the spinal cord, innervate the skeletal muscle fibers. The innervations happens by very fine processes of the axon. The synapses are present along these processes and are also known as motor endplate, because of its specific structure. The neuromuscular junction synapse has 3 characteristic features: There are two membranes called the pre and post synaptic membranes. There exists a distinct space between these membranes and is known as Synaptic Cleft. High density of small spherical vesicles is present, which contain neurotransmitter substances. A thickened post synaptic membrane is present, which has high density of receptors that are responsible for binding the chemical substances which transmit the signal from the pre synaptic neuron. Functions of Neuromuscular Junction Before going in detail, let us remember the broad action of this junction. It is to act like a bridge between a neuron and muscle cell to transmit the signals. Motor Neuron—Synaptic Cleft—Skeletal Muscle Cell Calcium makes an entry in the excited motor neuron, which in turn causes exocytosis of the neurotransmitter. Which means the neurotransmitter gets transported to the only place available – the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter secreted by the somatic motor neurons. There are receptors of acetylcholine present in the skeletal muscle cells. So this secreted acetylcholine then passes the cleft by diffusion and bind with the receptors. They are like puzzle pieces which fit or key which opens the door. This process opens an ion channel through which sodium ions pass to the muscle cells. At that time potassium ions diffuse out of muscle cells. However, the amount of Sodium ions entering is higher than the number of potassium ions leaving. Once the sodium ion reaches the muscle cell, it depolarizes, because it is a positive ion. This causes the skeletal muscle cell membrane to get excited and contract. This is referred to as Action Potential being triggered. The acetylcholine does not remain in the synaptic cleft of the neuromuscular junction forever. This is to ensure that it does not cause over contraction of the muscle or keep the muscle contracted for longer than required. An enzyme called as Acetyl cholinesterase is responsible in acting as a catalyst in breaking down the acetylcholine present in the synaptic cleft. It gives rise to acetate and choline, which are then transported back to the synaptic cleft, where they are resynthesized. This is called as Active Reuptake. Neuromuscular Junction Disorders ‗ Some of the disorders affecting the neuromuscular junction are Myasthenia Gravis, Botulism, Eaton-Lambert syndrome etc. The neuromuscular junction can also malfunction when exposed to certain antibiotics, organophosphates which are type of insecticides, curare which is a toxin derived from plants and gases used in chemical warfare. Some of these things work by preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine after the transmission of the nerve impulse. While some of the disorders cause over activity of the muscles as described below: person syndrome: Antibodies attack nerve cells – responsible for muscle regulation – present in the brain and spinal cord and cause them to be continuously stimulated. Due to this they become stiff. Isaacs’s syndrome: In this the nerves keep sending impulses to the muscles which causes them to be over stimulated and ultimately stiffen. They also tend to twitch, due to which they find exercising and normal activities difficult to perform. Fuel for muscular activity. Your body is your vehicle, so you have to keep your engine — your heart — running when you work out. That means fueling up your tank with the right foods and your radiator with the right fluids, using with right amounts at the right times. The American College of Sports Medicine says, ―Adequate food and fluid should be consumed before, during, and after exercise to help maintain blood glucose concentration during exercise, maximize exercise performance, and improve recovery time. Athletes should be well hydrated before exercise and drink enough fluid during and after exercise to balance fluid losses.‖ Not fueling up before you work out is like ―driving a car on empty,‖ said Platt, an American Heart Association volunteer. You also won‘t have enough energy to maximize your workout and you limit your ability to burn calories. Ideally, fuel up two hours before you exercise by: Hydrating with water. Eating healthy carbohydrates such as whole-grain cereals (with lowfat or skim milk), whole-wheat toast (without the fatty cream cheese), low-fat or fat-free yogurt, whole grain pasta, brown rice, fruits and vegetables. Avoiding saturated

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology Sensory Physiology All sensory receptors can be classified by their structure and by the type of stimulus that they detect. Structurally, there are 3 classes of sensory receptors: free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, and specialized cells. Free nerve endings are simply free dendrites at the end of a neuron that extend into a tissue. Pain, heat, and cold are all sensed through free nerve endings. An encapsulated nerve ending is a free nerve ending wrapped in a round capsule of connective tissue. When the capsule is deformed by touch or pressure, the neuron is stimulated to send signals to the CNS. Specialized cells detect stimuli from the 5 special senses: vision, hearing, balance, smell, and taste. Each of the special senses has its own unique sensory cells—such as rods and cones in the retina to detect light for the sense of vision. Functionally, there are 6 major classes of receptors: mechanoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to mechanical stimuli like touch, pressure, vibration, and blood pressure. Nociceptors. Nociceptors respond to stimuli such as extreme heat, cold, or tissue damage by sending pain signals to the CNS. Photoreceptors. Photoreceptors in the retina detect light to provide the sense of vision. Chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors detect chemicals in the bloodstream and provide the senses of taste and smell. Osmoreceptors. Osmoreceptors monitor the osmolarity of the blood to determine the body's hydration levels. Thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors detect temperatures inside the body and in its surroundings. The Nervous System and Reflexes In general, nerve function is dependent on both sensory and motor fibers, sensory stimulation evoking motor response. Even the autonomic system is activated by sensory impulses from receptors in the organ or muscle. Where especially sensitive areas or powerful stimuli are concerned, it is not always necessary for a sensory impulse to reach the brain in order to trigger motor response. A sensory neuron may link directly to a motor neuron at a synapse in the spinal cord, forming a reflex arc that performs automatically. Thus, tapping the tendon below the kneecap causes the leg to jerk involuntarily because the impulse provoked by the tap, after traveling to the spinal cord, travels directly back to the leg muscle. Such a response is called an involuntary reflex action. Commonly, the reflex arc includes one or more connector neurons that exert a modulating effect, allowing varying degrees of response, e.g., according to whether the stimulation is strong, weak, or prolonged. Reflex arcs are often linked with other arcs by nerve fibers in the spinal cord. Consequently, a number of reflex muscle responses may be triggered simultaneously, as when a person shudders and jerks away from the touch of an insect. Links between the reflex arcs and higher centers enable the brain to identify a sensory stimulus, such as pain; to note the reflex response, such as withdrawal; and to inhibit that response, as when the arm is held steady against the prick of a hypodermic needle. Reflex patterns are inherited rather than learned, having evolved as involuntary survival mechanisms. But voluntary actions initiated in the brain may become reflex actions through continued association of a particular stimulus with a certain result. In such cases, an alteration of impulse routes occurs that permits responses without mediation by higher nerve centers. Such responses are called conditioned reflexes, the most famous example being one of the experiments Ivan Pavlov performed with dogs. After the dogs had learned to associate the provision of food with the sound of a bell, they salivated at the sound of the bell even when food was not offered. Habit formation and much of learning are dependent on conditioned reflexes. To illustrate, the brain of a student typist must coordinate sensory impulses from both the eyes and the muscles in order to direct the fingers to particular keys. After enough repetition the fingers automatically find and strike the proper keys even if the eyes are closed. The student has "learned" to type; that is, typing has become a conditioned reflex. Disorders of the Nervous System A number of diseases can significantly affect the proper functioning of the nervous system. Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, myasthenia gravis, andamyotrophic lateral sclerosis (commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease) are some of the more severe diseases affecting the nervous system. Strokes, which are related to circulatory disorders, also may have permanent effects on the nervous system. Certain plant derivatives, such as belladonna, cocaine, and caffeine, have a variety of stimulatory, inhibitory, and hallucinatory effects on the nervous system. Sense organs Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) is credited with the traditional classification of the five sense organs: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. As far back as the 1760's, the famous philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed that our knowledge of the outside world depends on our modes of perception. In order to define what is "extrasensory" we need to define what is "sensory". Each of the 5 senses consists of organs with specialized cellular structures that have receptors for specific stimuli. These cells have links to the nervous system and thus to the brain. Sensing is done at primitive levels in the cells and integrated into sensations in the nervous system. Sight is probably the most developed sense in humans, followed closely by hearing. An organ of the body which responds to external stimuli by conveying impulses to the sensory nervous system. The sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous system. Each sense organ contains different receptors. General receptors are found throughout the body because they are

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Nervous Tissue Spinal Cord Cerebrospinal Fluid Sense Organs Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System Action Potentials Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System Nervous systems: The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body‘s electrical wiring. Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and branch out to every other part of the body. Every minute of every day, your nervous system is sending and receiving countless messages about what is happening both inside and around your body. Right now, your nervous system is receiving sensory input from your eyes about the words on the screen, from your ears about the sound of the computer, from your skin about the feel of your clothes, etc. At the same time, your brain is receiving information from sensors that monitor your heartrate, blood pressure, levels of oxygen and the contents of your stomach and intestines. Your brain then interprets all of these signals, which allows for an understanding of the words on the screen, the recognition of the noise as computer noise, and the development of motor responses such as moving your eyeballs, changing positions in your chair, and decreasing or increasing your heartrate and digestion. In short, your nervous system coordinates all the activities of your body. This module will provide a general overview of the nervous system as a whole. A word of caution: A system capable of so many sophisticated and complicated functions has to be extremely complex. One module cannot possibly present all the information about the nervous system, and it will probably take a few trips through the nervous system before the pieces fall into place, so don't despair if you're a bit confused. An Introduction to Nervous Systems presents the principles of neurobiology from an evolutionary perspective—from single–celled organisms to complex invertebrates such as flies—and is ideal for use as a supplemental textbook. Greenspan describes the mechanisms that allow behavior to become ever more sophisticated—from simple avoidance behavior of Paramecium through to the complex cognitive behaviors of the honeybee—and shows how these mechanisms produce the increasing neural complexity found in these organisms. The book ends with a discussion of what is universal about nervous systems and what may be required, neurobiologically, to be human. This novel and highly readable presentation of fundamental principles of neurobiology is designed to be accessible to undergraduate and graduate students not already steeped in the subject. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems. The Central nervous system. The central nervous system is divided into two major parts: the brain and the spinal cord. Thenervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central systemis the primary control center for the body and is composed of the brain and spinal cord. he nervous system has three main functions: gathering sensory input, integrating data, and forming motor output. Neurons sense external stimuli through receptors in the body, providing the first major function of the nervous system—gathering sensory input. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons. This system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all parts of the body. The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the external environment. The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems. In vertebrates the system has two main divisions, the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Linked to these are the cranial, spinal, and autonomic nerves, which, with their branches, constitute the peripheral nervous system. The brain might be compared to a computer and its memory banks, the spinal cord to the conducting cable for the computer's input and output, and the nerves to a circuit supplying input information to the cable and transmitting the output to muscles and organs. The nervous system is built up of nerve cells, called neurons, which are supported and protected by other cells. Of the 200 billion or so neurons making up the human nervous system, approximately half are found in the brain. From the cell body of a typical neuron extend one or more outgrowths (dendrites), threadlike structures that divide and subdivide into ever smaller branches. Another, usually longer structure called the axon also stretches from the cell body. It sometimes branches along its length but always branches at its microscopic tip. When the cell body of a neuron is chemically stimulated, it generates an impulse that passes from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of another; the junction between axon and dendrite is called a synapse. Such impulses carry information throughout the nervous system. Electrical impulses may pass directly from axon to axon, from axon to dendrite, or from dendrite to dendrite. So-called white matter in the central nervous system consists primarily of axons coated with light-colored myelin produced by certain neuroglial cells. Nerve cell bodies that are not coated with white matter are known as gray matter. Nonmyelinated

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Structure and Functions of Epithelial Tissues CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Structure and Functions of Epithelial Tissues using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic EPITHELIAL TISSUE Structure of Epithelial Tissues It also forms all glands including endocrine and exocrine glands Classification of Epithelial Tissues Simple Epithelium Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Stratified Epithelia Stratified squamous epithelium Non keratinized stratified epithelium Transitional Epithelia General Functions of Epithelial Tissues General Functions of Epithelial Tissue Secretion summary assignment reference Structure and Functions of Epithelial Tissues EPITHELIAL TISSUE What is epithelial tissue? EPITHELIAL TISSUE Epithelial tissues are linings of the various passages inside the body. Structure of Epithelial Tissues General Structure of Epithelial Tissues Epithelium is a group of closely associated cells with scanty intercellular materials that cover external and internal surfaces of the body They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands Epithelial tissues are widely spread throughout the body The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with no intercellular material between the cells or very little intercellular materials It also forms all glands including endocrine and exocrine glands The cells are attached to the underlying connective tissue known as the basement membrane The basement membrane is a connective tissue structure where the epithelial cells are attached Cells of epithelial tissue appear in different shapes and structure These differences reflect the functions of the epithelium Classification of Epithelial Tissues what are the classes of epithelial tissue? Classification of Epithelial Tissues Classification according to the cell shape Squamous epithelia:cells are flat cells with an irregular flattened shape (fish-scale appearance) Cuboidal eithelia:cells have a shape similar to a cube, meaning its width is the same size as its height Columnar epithelia: cells are taller than they are wide Classification based on number of cell layers (Stratification) Simple epithelia Stratified epithelia Pseudostratified epithelia Transitional epithelia Simple Epithelium Cells are organized in a single layer and therefore all cells are attached to the basement membrane Because the shapes of the cells include possible function, they are found in different organs depending on their function: There are three types of simple epithelium: Simple squamous epithelium, Simple cuboidal epithelium, Simple columnar epithelium Simple Squamous Epithelium All Squamous cells are flat cells with an irregular flattened shape It is a one-cell layer of simple squamous epithelium Forms a thin membrane and therefore it is found in places where exchange of material from one compartment to the other occurs. Squamous cells can be found in the heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and alveoli of the lung. They allow free diffusion Simple Cuboidal Epithelium This consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely together lying on a basement membrane. Forms secretory cells, lining of the small ducts of the glands and it covers the outer surfaces of organs such as the ovaries and in the kidney tubules Are actively involved in secretion, absorption and excretion Simple Columnar Epithelium This is formed by a single layer of cells, rectangular in shape lying on a basement membrane. It is found lining the organs of the alimentary tract. Consists of mixture of cells, some absorb the products of digestion and others secrete mucus. Stratified Epithelia Consists of several layers of cells of various shapes The superficial layers grow up from below Basement membranes are usually absent The main function of compound epithelium is to protect underlying structures There are two types: Stratified and transitional Stratified squamous epithelium Consists of several layers of cells of different shapes The cells are arranged into superficial, intermediate and basal (deep) layers In the deepest layers the cells are mainly columnar and, as they grow towards the surface, they become flattened. It is the main protective epithelium of the body external surface for example in the skin it forms the epidermis,some parts of tongue, hard palate There are two types: Non keratinized stratified epithelium and Keratinized stratified epithelium Keratinized stratified epithelium Refers to cells that has become hardened and died. The cells have a tough fibrous protein called keratin that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes and chemicals. It is found on dry surfaces that are subject to wear and tear such as skin, hair and nails. Non keratinized stratified epithelium Does not contain keratin and consists of cells which are not dead It is found on wet surfaces that may be subjected to wear and tear but are protected from drying, for example conjunctiva of the eyes, and lining of the mouth, pharynx, the oesophagus and vagina. It provides mechanical protection from injury Transitional Epithelia Transitional epithelium: A transitional epithelium (also known as urothelium) is made up of several layers of cells that become flattened when stretched. It lines most of your urinary tract and allows your bladder to expand. General Functions of Epithelial Tissues What are the functions of epithelial tissues? General Functions of Epithelial Tissue Protection Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water Sensation Sensory stimuli penetrate specialized epithelial cells Specialized epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue Secretion In glands, epithelial tissue is specialized to secrete specific chemical substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids Absorption Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food Excretion Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb needed materials from the urine Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands Diffusion Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients summary The term "epithelium" refers to layers of cells that line hollow organs and glands It is also those cells that make up the outer surface of the body. Cells of epithelial tissue appear