Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility

Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility

STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE

• Appropriate exercise increases the strength and endurance of skeletal muscles.
• Increases in muscular strength are associated with increases in muscle mass;
• increases in muscular endurance are associated with improved blood flow to the
• working muscles. These results are achieved by resistance training. Any

exercise that causes the muscle to increase its tension, whether or not the muscle actually shortens during contraction, provides an appropriate strengthtraining stimulus. Resistance can be applied to a muscle group by attempting to move an immovable object, by working one muscle group against another, by lifting heavy weights, or by using special strength-training machines and devices. There is a wide selection of strength-training equipment that, when used properly, can increase muscular strength and endurance. It is possible that some of the equipment is more efficient in developing maximal performance, which is important for competitive athletes. But for the average individual, who is training to maintain an acceptable level of muscular fitness, any one device or program is probably about as good as another.

• Strength and endurance training is done by performing several ―reps‖
• (repetitions) of a given exercise, then moving on to another exercise for a
• different muscle group. Experts generally recommend that exercisers select a
• resistance that is approximately 65 percent of the maximum they can lift for
• that particular exercise. This load should allow the completion of 12 reps of
• that exercise in 24 to 30 seconds. Each group of eight to 12 reps is called a set,
• and two or three sets of a given exercise are recommended for each training
• session. The average individual should perform strength and endurance training
• two to three days per week. Super circuit weight training refers to a program in
• which running or other aerobic exercises are performed between sets; this

training produces aerobic as well as strength benefits.

FLEXIBILITY

• Muscles and tendons can be stretched to improve flexibility (the range of
• motion at a joint). Flexibility training follows a few, simple principles. To
• improve range of motion, the muscles and other connective tissue around a
• joint must be stretched. The preferred stretching technique is a slow increase in
• the range of motion. The exerciser should feel the muscle stretch, but not to the
• point of pain. The stretch should be performed gradually, and the body should
• be held for 10 to 20 seconds in the stretched position and then gradually
• returned to a relaxed posture. By stretching each muscle group in this fashion
• as a part of the strengthening and conditioning program, the participant will
• maintain good flexibility. Bouncing or explosive stretching movements should
• be avoided, as they can result in muscle or tendon tears.

Cardio respiratory effects

CARDIAC EFFECTS

• Regular aerobic exercise training has a direct effect on the heart muscle. The
• muscle mass of the left ventricle, which is the pumping chamber that circulates
• blood throughout the body, increases with exercise training. This change means
• that the heart can pump more blood with each beat. In short, the heart becomes
• a bigger, stronger, and more efficient pump capable of doing more work with

less effort.

CIRCULATORY EFFECTS

• Regular exercise also produces changes in the circulation. As previously
• discussed, muscle endurance training serves to increase blood flow to the
• working muscles. This increased blood flow means that more oxygen and fuel
• can be delivered to the muscle cells. The number of red blood cells, which
• carry oxygen in the blood, also increases with training, as does blood volume.
• Taken together, these changes indicate a greater capacity to transport oxygen to

the working muscles.

PULMONARY EFFECTS

• The basic function of the lungs is to facilitate the transfer (1) of oxygen from
• the atmosphere into the blood and (2) of carbon dioxide from the blood into the
• atmosphere. To accomplish this, air must pass into and out of the lungs, and the
• respiratory gases must diffuse through the lungs into the circulation and vice
• versa. Although exercise has not been shown to affect this diffusing ability,
• exercise training does strengthen the muscles of respiration. This means that a
• trained individual can move more air through the lungs per time unit, and
• forced vital capacity (i.e., the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after
• a full inspiration) may be increased.
• Warming up, conditioning and fatigue.
• A warm-up is an activity or activities, which prepare you both mentally and
• physically for further more intense activity or training. It should be continuous
• movement utilizing a variety of movements, which will result in increased heart
• rate, core temperature, and dynamic range of motion. In a warm-up you
• basically want to get the entire body warm, loose, and a little sweat on the
• forehead. You should now be ready mentally and physically to begin an intense
• training session. The warm-up should increase your productivity in the work
• out and also reduce your risk of injury.
• Purpose: Body movements, increase blood flow to muscles, joints, raise core
• temperature, active flexibility, teaching/learning of body awareness and control.
• The warm up activities are a crucial part of any exercise regime or sports
• training. The importance of a structured warm up routine should not be under

estimated when it comes to the prevention of sports injury.

The Warm Up

• An effective warm up has a number of very important key elements. These
• elements, or parts, should all be working together to minimize the likelihood of
• sports injury from physical activity. Warming up prior to any physical activity
• does a number of beneficial things, but primarily its main purpose is to prepare
• the body and mind for more strenuous activity. One of the ways it achieves this
• is by helping to increase the body's core temperature, while also increasing the
• body's muscle temperature. By increasing muscle temperature you are helping
• to make the muscles loose, supple and pliable.
• An effective warm up also has the effect of increasing both your heart rate and
• your respiratory rate. This increases blood flow, which in turn increases the
• delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles. All this helps to
• prepare the muscles, tendons and joints for more strenuous activity. Keeping in
• mind the aims or goals of an effective warm up, we can then go on to look at
• how the warm up should be structured.
• Obviously, it is important to start with the easiest and most gentle activity first,
• building upon each part with more energetic activities, until the body is at a
• physical and mental peak. This is the state in which the body is most prepared
• for the physical activity to come, and where the likelihood of sports injury has
• been minimized as much as possible. So, how should you structure your warm
• up to achieve these goals?
• There are four key elements, or parts, which should be included to ensure an
• effective and complete warm up. They are:
• The general warm up
• Static stretching
• The sports specific warm up
• Dynamic stretching
• All four parts are equally important and any one part should not be neglected or
• thought of as not necessary. All four elements work together to bring the body
• and mind to a physical peak, ensuring the athlete is prepared for the activity to
• come. This process will help ensure the athlete has a minimal risk of sports
• injury. Let us have a look at each element individually.
• General warm up
• The general warm up should consist of a light physical activity. Both the
• intensity and duration of the general warm up (or how hard and how long),
• should be governed by the fitness level of the participating athlete. Although a
• correct general warm up for the average person should take about five to ten
• minutes and result in a light sweat. The aim of the general warm up is simply to
• elevate the heart rate and respiratory rate. This in turn increases the blood flow
• and helps with the transportation of oxygen and nutrients to the working
• muscles. This also helps to increase the muscle temperature, allowing for a
• more effective static stretch.
• Static stretching
• Static stretching is a very safe and effective form of basic stretching. There is a
• limited threat of injury and it is extremely beneficial for overall flexibility.
• During this part of the warm up, static stretching should include all the major
• muscle groups, and this entire part should last for about five to ten minutes.
• Static stretching is performed by placing the body into a position whereby the
• muscle or group of muscles to be stretched is under tension. Both the opposing
• muscle group (the muscles behind or in front of the stretched muscle), and the
• muscles to be stretched are relaxed. Then slowly and cautiously the body is
• moved to increase the tension of the muscle, or group of muscles to be
• stretched. At this point the position is held or maintained to allow the muscles
• and tendons to lengthen.
• This second part of an effective warm up is extremely important, as it helps to
• lengthen both the muscles and tendons which in turn allow your limbs a greater
• range of movement. This is very important in the prevention of muscle and
• tendon injuries. The above two elements form the basis, or foundation for a
• complete and effective warm up. It is extremely important that these two
• elements be completed properly before moving onto the next two elements. The
• proper completion of elements one and two, will now allow for the more
• specific and vigorous activities necessary for elements three and four.
• Sport specific warm up
• With the first two parts of the warm up carried out thoroughly and correctly, it
• is now safe to move onto the third part of an effective warm up. In this part, the
• athlete is specifically preparing their body for the demands of their particular
• sport. During this part of the warm up, more vigorous activity should be
• employed. Activities should reflect the type of movements and actions which
• will be required during the sporting event.
• Dynamic stretching
• Finally, a correct warm up should finish with a series of dynamic stretches.
• However, this form of stretching carries with it a high risk of injury if used
• incorrectly. It should really only be used under the supervision of a professional
• sports coach or trainer.Dynamic stretching is more for muscular conditioning
• than flexibility and is really only suited for professional, well trained, highly
• conditioned athletes.
• Dynamic stretching should only be used after a high level of general flexibility
• has been established. Dynamic stretching involves a controlled, soft bounce or
• swinging motion to force a particular body part past its usual range of
• movement. The force of the bounce or swing is gradually increased but should
• never become radical or uncontrolled. During this last part of an effective warm
• up it is also important to keep the dynamic stretches specific to the athlete's
• particular sport. This is the final part of the warm up and should result in the
• athlete reaching a physical and mental peak. At this point the athlete is most

prepared for the rigors of their sport or activity.

Neck Rotation

• Relax
• Slowly roll your head around in a full circle, keeping your back straight
• You may feel the need to hold the stretch at a particular position if it
• feels tight, but do not strain
• Continue for approximately 10 seconds

Shoulder Rotation

• Slowly rotate one shoulder at a time
• Rotate in forward and backward directions in a large circular motion
• Continue for approximately 10 seconds in each direction

Trunk Rotation

• Place hands on hips
• Rotate trunk, bending forward, to right, backward and to left
• Continue for approximately 10 seconds

Rock Squat

• From a standing position, slowly lower hips to squatting position
• Rock back and forth several times, attempting to squat progressively
• lower
• Turn and face to the right, straightening right leg and stretch right
• hamstring
• Hold stretch for 10 seconds
• Repeat for left leg

Hamstrings Stretch

• From lunge position, place knee on ground, lean forward on top of thigh
• Slide back leg as far back as possible
• Keeping chest on thigh, move hips back, straightening out forward leg
• Relax and hold for 10 seconds
• Slowly return to standing position
• Repeat for opposite leg

Arms Back (Chest/Shoulder Stretch)

• From a seated position, place hands on ground with arms behind torso
• Slowly move hips forward until stretch is felt in chest and shoulders
• Hold stretch for 10 seconds

Knee Over (Back Stretch)

• Lay back with knees bent
• Pull right leg across your body
• Keep upper back, head and shoulders flat on the floor
• Hold for 10 seconds
• Repeat for other side

Modified Hurdle

• Sit with right leg straight, keeping foot upright
• Tuck left foot into the inside of the right thigh
• Slowly bend forward from the hips toward the right foot, keeping your
• back straight
• Bring your chest to your right thigh
• Relax and hold for 10 seconds
• Repeat for opposite leg

(Piriformis Stretch)

• Place left foot over right knee and lie back
• Grasp right shin and slowly bring right knee to chest
• Relax and hold for 10 seconds
• Repeat for opposite leg
• Butterfly
• Sit with soles of your feet together, holding onto your toes
• Use your elbows to gently push to the inside of your thighs until you get
• a good, even stretch
• Relax and hold for 10 seconds
• Repeat

Lunge (Hip Flexor Stretch)

• Move right leg forward until right knee is directly over the right ankle
• Keeping back leg straight, gently lower your hips to create an easy
• stretch in the front of the hip
• Hold for 10 seconds
• Repeat for other leg

Quadriceps Stretch

• Maintain position with one knee on ground
• Grasp shin with and pull lower leg toward hamstrings
• Slowly lean back toward ground, keeping your back straight
• Relax and hold for 10 seconds
• Repeat for opposite leg

Calf Stretch

• With hands on ground, move feet back until left knee is nearly straight
• and cross right leg behind left leg
• Press left heel toward ground to create an easy stretch in the calf
• Hold stretch for 10 seconds
• Repeat for other leg
• Basic concept of balanced diet – Diet before, during and after competition
• What is a healthy diet?
• The crucial part of healthy eating is a balanced diet. A balanced diet – or a
• good diet – means consuming from all the different good groups in the right
• quantities. Nutritionists say there are five main food groups – whole grains, fruit
• and vegetables, protein, diary, and fat & sugar. A balanced diet is a diet that
• consists of the right nutrients in the right quantities. Everyone's bodies are
• different and may require different amounts or types of nutrients. The following
• information is for general reference and may not apply to everyone. On this
• page. Fats. There is good evidence that eating a healthy diet can reduce your
• risk of obesity and illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis
• and some types of cancer. The food you eat contains several different types of
• nutrients, which are all required for the many vital processes in your body.
• What is a balanced diet?
• A balanced diet needs to contain foods from all the main food groups in the
• correct proportions to provide the body with optimum nutrition. It should also
• be made up of the correct number of calories to maintain a healthy weight, and
• be low in processed foods. Every person is different and hence the correct diet
• for health may vary from person to person, however by following a diet that is
• varied, covers all foods groups and is low in undesirable nutrients such as
• sodium, saturated fats and sugar, you are well on your way to a healthy body.
• Why is a balanced diet important?
• A balanced diet is one that provides the body with all the essential nutrients,
• vitamins and minerals required to maintain cells, tissues and organs as well as
• to function correctly. A diet that is lacking in nutrients can lead to many
• different health problems ranging from tiredness and lack of energy to serious
• problems with the function of vital organs and lack of growth and development.
• How to achieve a healthy balanced diet?
• To achieve a healthy, balanced diet, it is important to eat at least three meals a
• day and not to skip breakfast. Each meal should be composed of a variety of
• foods from each food group and portion sizes should be moderated to control
• calorie intake. Limiting alcohol consumption is also recommended, the US
• guidelines being one standard drink per day for women and two for men with
• two alcohol free days per week.
• The 2010 dietary guidelines from the U.S. Departments of Health and Human
• Services and Agriculture recommend that a diet that is low in saturated and
• trans fats, cholesterol, added sugar, salt and alcohol should be followed. A
• diet similar to the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension or the
• Mediterranean diet) diet is recommended to fulfill these requirements. Calorie
• intake should also be balanced with physical activity and sedentary activities

such as watching TV should be reduced.

What Are Calories?

• The number of calories in a food is a measurement of the amount of energy
• stored in that food. Your body uses calories from food for walking, thinking,
• breathing, and other important functions. The average person needs to eat about
• 2,000 calories every day to maintain their weight.
• However, a person‘s specific daily calorie intake can vary depending on their
• age, gender, and physical activity level. Men generally need more calories than
• women, and people who exercise need more calories than people who don‘t.
• The following examples of daily calorie intake are based on United States
• Department of Agriculture (USDA) guidelines:
• children ages 2 to 8: 1,000 to 1,400 calories
• active women ages 14 to 30: 2,400 calories
• sedentary women ages 14 to 30: 1,800 to 2,000 calories
• active men ages 14 to 30: 2,800 to 3,000 calories
• sedentary men ages 14 to 30: 2,000 to 2,600 calories
• active men and women over 30: 2,200 to 3,000 calories
• sedentary men and women over 30: 1,800 to 2,200 calories
• The source of your daily calories is just as important as the number of calories
• you consume. You should limit your consumption of ―empty calories,‖ or those
• that provide little or no nutritional value. The USDA defines empty calories as
• calories that come from sugars and solid fats, such as butter and shortening.
• According to the USDA, Americans consume empty calories most often in:
• bacon
• sausages
• cakes
• cheese
• cookies
• doughnuts
• energy drinks
• fruit drinks
• ice cream
• pizza
• sports drinks and sodas
• Why a Balanced Diet Is Important
• A balanced diet is important because your organs and tissues need proper
• nutrition to work effectively. Without good nutrition, your body is more prone
• to disease, infection, fatigue, and poor performance. Children with a poor diet
• run the risk of growth and developmental problems and poor academic
• performance. Bad eating habits can persist for the rest of their lives.
• Rising levels of obesity and diabetes in America are prime examples of the
• effects of a poor diet and a lack of exercise. The USDA reports that four of the
• top 10 leading causes of death in the United States are directly influenced by
• diet. These are:
• heart disease
• cancer
• stroke
• diabetes
• How to Achieve a Balanced Diet
• At the core of a balanced diet are foods that are low in unnecessary fats and
• sugars but high in vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. The following food
• groups are essential parts of a balanced diet.
• Fruits
• Besides being a great source of nutrition, fruits make tasty snacks. Choose
• fruits that are in season in your area. They‘re fresher and provide the most
• nutrients.
• Vegetables
• Vegetables are primary sources of essential vitamins and minerals. Dark, leafy
• greens generally contain the most nutrition and can be eaten at every meal. A
• variety of vegetables will help you obtain the bountiful nutrients that all
• vegetables provide. Examples of dark leafy greens include:
• spinach
• kale
• green beans
• broccoli
• collard greens
• Swiss chard
• Grains
• According to the USDA, Americans consume refined white flour more than
• any other grain. Unfortunately, refined white flour contains poor nutritional
• value because the hull of the grain is removed during the refining process. The
• hull is the outer shell of the grain and is where the majority of the grain‘s
• nutrition lies. Whole grains, however, are prepared using the entire grain,
• including the hull, so they provide much more nutrition. Try switching from
• white breads and pastas to whole-grain products.
• Proteins
• Meats and beans are primary sources of protein, which is essential for proper
• muscle and brain development. Lean, low-fat meats such as chicken, fish, and
• certain cuts of pork and beef are the best options. Removing the skin and
• trimming off any visible fat are easy ways to reduce the amount of fat and
• cholesterol in meats. The health and diet of the animal are important and
• influence the fatty acid profile of the meat, so grass-fed choices are ideal.
• Other good sources of protein, which contain many other health benefits, fiber
• and other nutrients, include nuts and beans, such as:
• lentils
• beans
• peas
• almonds
• sunflower seeds
• walnuts
• Tofu, tempo, and other soy-based products are excellent sources of protein and
• are healthy alternatives to meat.
• Dairy
• Dairy products provide calcium, vitamin D, and other essential nutrients.
• However, they‘re also major sources of fat, so it‘s best to choose small portions
• of full-fat cheeses, and reduced-fat or fat-free milk and yogurt. Plant-based
• milks, such as those made from flaxseed, almond, or soy are typically fortified
• with calcium and other nutrients, making these excellent alternatives to dairy
• from cows.
• Oils
• Oils should be used sparingly. Opt for low-fat and low-sugar versions of
• products that contain oil, such as salad dressing and mayonnaise. Good oils,
• such as olive oil, can replace fattier vegetable oil in your diet. Avoid deep-fried
• foods because they contain a large number of empty calories.
• The USDA has an online calculator that can help you determine how much of
• each food group you should consume daily.
• Aside from adding certain foods to your diet, you should also reduce your
• consumption of certain substances in order to maintain a balanced diet and a
• healthy weight. These include:
• alcohol
• refined grains
• solid fats
• saturated fats
• trans fats
• salt
• sugars
• The key to a healthy, balanced diet is:
• eating the right amount of food to achieve and maintain a healthy body weight
• eating a wide variety of foods in the right proportions – this is what balanced
• means
• The range of foods in your diet should include:
• plenty of fruit and vegetables
• plenty of bread, rice, potatoes, pasta and other starchy foods – choosing
• wholegrain varieties where possible
• some meat, fish, eggs, beans and other non-dairy sources of protein
• some milk and dairy foods – choosing lower-fat varieties where possible
• just a small amount of foods high in fat and sugar
• Carbohydrates are the body‘s main source of fuel during exercise. A diet high
• in carbohydrate-rich foods such as whole grain products, vegetables, fruits and
• legumes, can help you exercise longer and faster.
• How should I eat before a competition?
• One to six hours before a competition, eat a meal that is high in
• carbohydrates and low in fat, like rice and veggies. If the event is less than four
• hours away, eat enough so that you won't get hungry but not so much that you'll
• be full and uncomfortable.
• Two hours before, drink at least two cups (16 ounces) of water or fruit juice.
• Avoid beverages that have caffeine. They can cause dehydration.
• Within 15 minutes before, drink two cups (16 ounces) of cold water.
• Hint: If your event is in the morning, eat a carbohydrate-rich dinner and
• bedtime snack like frozen grapes the night before. Then eat a light meal in the
• morning. This should be high in carbohydrates too.
• The size and timing of a meal or snack before an intense workout depends on
• your individual needs. The longer the time between eating and activity the more
• you might be able to eat. Approximately 2 – 4 hours before an endurance event,
• drink plenty of fluids and try to eat a meal high in carbohydrates (e.g. grain
• products, fruits and vegetables), relatively low in protein (small servings of
• choices such as chicken, beans, or hummus), and fibre and low in fat. This may
• help to:
• boost energy levels
• prevent hunger
• keep you hydrated
• extend your time to exhaustion
• Some people experience an upset stomach if they eat a meal before endurance
• activity. A liquid snack such as a sports drink or smoothie is a good alternative.
• Carbohydrate-rich snack examples include some sport bars, fruit, and cereal
• with milk, lentils, bagels, pasta, yogurt, and homemade granola bars.
• "Carbohydrate-loading" (for competitive activities that last longer than 90
• minutes) has been found to build extra carbohydrate energy stores in the body
• (as muscle and liver glycogen). However, it may not offer additional benefits to
• performance if you follow a high-carbohydrate diet or eat a carbohydrate rich
• snack before and/or during exercise.
• During a competition?

Every 15 minutes drink half a cup (4 ounces) of cold water.

Hint: If your event is an endurance event that lasts an hour or more, like longdistance running, you need carbohydrates as well as water, so drink a mix of half fruit juice and half water, rather than plain water, or have a sports drink.

• During intense exercise that lasts longer than one hour, eating carbohydrate
• might help extend time to exhaustion and may improve performance in some
• activities such as sprints and agility drills. Approximately 30 – 70 g of
• carbohydrates per hour (such as in the form of a sports drink), in small amounts
• every 15 to 20 minutes, can improve exercise performance.
• For activities lasting longer than an hour or in extreme heat, sports drinks
• provide hydration as well as carbohydrate. It is important that you drink enough
• during and after exercise to replace the fluid you lose in sweat. To find out how
• much you typically sweat during training or competition weigh yourself before
• and after exercise. Factor in how much you drank. The difference will be sweat
• losses.
• After a competition?
• Right away and throughout the rest of the day, catch up on the fluids you lost
• through sweating. Sweat is mostly water. Try to drink two cups of fluid that
• contain carbohydrates (fruit juice, milk, soy milk, sports drinks, or watery
• foods, like soup) for every pound you lose during your activity. To do this, you
• need to weigh yourself before and after the event. Otherwise, just drink several
• cups of fluid. You can't overdo it. Your body will just get rid of the extra fluid.
• Within several hours, eat a high-carbohydrate meal. This will refill your
• muscles' supply of glycogen. Once your activity is finished, your body is ready
• to store energy again, repair muscles and fill up with fluids. Carbohydrate eaten
• within 30 minutes of exercise and again every two hours for four to six hours
• will replenish glycogen stores. Meals or snacks should also contain protein for
• building and repairing muscle and fluids for rehydrating.
• Immediately after endurance exercise, good choices would be a smoothie
• (blend milk, fruit and ice together), sport drink, chocolate milk and water. Soon
• after exercise choose a meal or snack rich in carbohydrate and protein. For
• example: chicken or fish with brown rice and tender-crisp steamed vegetables
• pasta and meat sauce with a leafy green salad vegetarian chili with a whole
• grain roll.
• It's great to have exercise goals and challenges, especially with endurance
• activities. Well-planned healthy eating before, during and after your long

exercise events can help make your experience even more enjoyable!