PST Level 4 Semester 1

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Introduction to Human Anatomy and Organization of Organism Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 1 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Organization of Organism Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Terms: Anatomy, Cytology, Histology and Physiology • Describe Anatomical Position and Planes • Explain Terms of Relationship and Comparison • Identify Structural Organization Levels of Organism • Identify Characteristics of Living Things Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Charts, OHP, Multimedia Projector, Computer, Pointer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction of Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition of Terms Used in Anatomy | | |10 minutes | |and Physiology | |3 |35 minutes |Presentation |Anatomical Position and Planes | | | |Demonstration | | |4 |25 minutes |Presentation |Terms of Relationship and Comparison| |5 |15 minutes |Presentation |Structural Organization Levels of | | | | |Organism | |6 |20 minutes |Presentation |Characteristics of Living things | | | |Brainstorming | | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | e SESSION CONTENTSbv8777=nngt / STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Terms Used in Anatomy and Physiology (10 minutes) • Anatomy: It is a study of structure of the body and physical relationship involved in between body system. • Is generally divided into three components o Gross anatomy ▪ It is the study of structure as they appear in human body. o Developmental anatomy It is the study of the s.tructural changes that occur between conception and adulthood. o Surface anatomy ▪ It is the study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures. • Cytology: The study of the structural features of cells using microscope. • Histology: The study of tissues, which are cells and the material surrounding them. • Physiology: The science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs and the cells of which they are composed. • Pathology: The medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions as well as the structural and functional resulting from disease. STEP 3: Anatomical Position and Planes (35 minutes) Anatomical Position • All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to the anatomical position. • The anatomical position refers to people regardless of the actual position they may be in as if they were standing erect, with their: o Head, eyes (gaze), and toes directed anteriorly (forward) o Upper limbs by the sides with the palms facing anteriorly o Lower limbs close together with the feet parallel and the toes directed anteriorly 0. [pic] Source: Moore, K. L., & Agur, A. M. R. (2007) Figure 1.1: Anatomical Position and Body Regions Anatomical Planes • Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes that intersect the body in the anatomical position. • There are many sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes, but there is only one median plane • Median (median sagittal) plane is the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the centre of the body, dividing it into right and left halves • Sagittal planes are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane. • It is helpful to give a point of reference to indicate the position of a specific plane for example, a sagittal plane through the midpoint of the clavicle • A plane parallel and near the median plane may be referred to as a Para median plane • Frontal (coronal) planes are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to the median plane, dividing it into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portion for example, a frontal plane through the heads of the mandible • Transverse planes are planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal planes. A transverse plane divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) part for example, a transverse plane through the umbilicus [pic] |Activity: Demonstration (10 minutes) | | | |SHOW students how to stand in anatomical position. | | | |[pic]REFER students to figure 1.1: Anatomical Position and Body Regions| | | |SELECT three students and tell them to stand in anatomical position. | | | |ASK other students to observe and comment who is correct and give | |reason. | | | |ALLOW students to respond | |. | STEP 4: Terms of Relationship and Comparison (20 minutes) • The following terminologies describe the relationship of parts of the body in the anatomical position and compare the position of two structures relative to each other Table 1: Terms of anatomical direction |Term |Meaning | |Anterior |In front of, front | |Posterior |After, behind, following, toward| | |the rear | |Distal |Away from, farther from the | | |origin | |Proximal |Near, closer to the origin | |Dorsal |Near the upper surface, toward | | |the back | |Ventral |Toward the bottom, toward the | | |belly | |Superior |Above, over | |Inferior |Below, under | |Lateral |Toward the side, away from the | | |mid-line | |Medial |Toward the mid-line, middle, | | |away from the side | |Rostral |Toward the front | |Caudal |Toward the back, toward the tail| [pic] Source: Moore, K. L., & Agur, A. M. R. (2007) Figure 1.3: Terms of relationship and comparison Table 2: Combined terms describing intermediate positional arrangements |Combined Terms |Meaning | |Inferomedial |Nearer to the feet

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure, Types and Functions of Cells Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 2 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 2: Structure, Types and Functions of Cells Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 60 minutes take home assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define the Cell • Mention Types of Cells • Describe the Structure of the Generalized Animal Cell • Describe Characteristics of the Animal Cell • Outline Functions of the Animal Cell Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Charts, OHP, Multimedia Projector, Computer, Pointer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction of Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes |Presentation |Definition of the Cell | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 | |Presentation |Types of Cells | | |15 minutes |Buzzing | | |4 | |Presentation | Structure of the Generalized Animal| | |50 minutes |Small group |Cell | | | |discussion | | |5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Characteristics of the Animal Cell | |6 |10 minutes |Presentation |Functions of the Animal Cell | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |9 |10 minutes | |Take home assignment | | | |Presentation | | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of the Cell (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is a cell? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • A cell: o Is the smallest living structural and functional unit of life ▪ It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called building block of life ▪ All cells come from pre-existing cells ▪ Most cells are microscopic and can replicate independently ▪ Some organisms are unicellular (consist of a single cell) e.g. some bacteria ▪ Other organisms are multicellular(consist of many cells) e.g. humans ▪ Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells ▪ Cells of the body perform specific functions, and therefore their structures vary greatly STEP 3: Types of Cells (15 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 5 | |minutes | | | |What are the types of cells? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • There are two types of cells: o Eukaryotic o Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Cells • Cells in higher animals (mammals) are eukaryotic, that is they have membrane bound nucleus, which is well protected, inside the cell • Eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms • Eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures inside the membranes • Most eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such a mitochondria, and the Golgi apparatus • Eukaryotes do have "true" nuclei containing DNA • Eukaryotic organisms may be unicellular, as in amoebae, or multicellular, as in humans • Cell division in eukaryotes is different from that in organisms without a nucleus (prokaryotes) Prokaryotic Cells • Do not contain membrane bound organelles and genetic material is scattered in the cytoplasm • The simple forms of life like bacteria are made up entirely of single cell are prokaryotic, the nucleus is not membrane bound it is scattered in the protoplasm and is vulnerable • Prokaryotic cells are usually independent • Prokaryotes generally lack membrane-bound cell compartments: such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. • Instead processes such as oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis take place across the prokaryotic plasma membrane. • However, prokaryotes do possess some internal structures, such as cytoskeletons. • Prokaryotes also differ from eukaryotes in that they contain only a single loop of stable chromosomal DNA stored in an area named the nucleoid, while eukaryote • DNA is found on tightly bound and organized chromosomes STEP 4: Structure of a Generalized Animal Cell (50 minutes) | | |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following task: | |Draw and label major parts of a generalized animal cell by using | |various resources | | | |ALLOW students to do the task for 20 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Structure of a generalized animal cell • The cell is divided into three main parts namely: plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus • The plasma membrane: Forms the cell’s outer surface separating the cell’s internal environment from the external environment. It regulates the flow of material into and out of the cell • The cytoplasm: It is the fluid-filled cell interior. It has two components: cytosol and organelles. o The cytosol is the liquid portion containing water and dissolved solutes. o The organelles are small structures with highly specialized functions, many of which are contained within a membrane. ▪ They include nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, cell membrane, microfilaments and

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of Human Cells Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 3 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 3: Common Disorders of Human Cells Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Terminologies Associated With Cellular Changes • Define the Terms Cancer, Tumour and Neoplasm • List Common Types of Cancer • Explain the Characteristics of Benign and Malignant Tumours • Explain the Aetiology and Associated Factors for Tumours/Cancers Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Charts, OHP, Multimedia Projector, Computer, Pointer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition of Terminologies | | |10 minutes | |Associated with Cellular Changes | |3 |10 minutes |Presentation |Definition and Common Types of | | | |Brainstorming |Cancers | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Characteristics of Malignant and | | | | |Benign | | | | |Tumours | |5 |15 minutes |Presentation |Aetiology and Associated Factors for| | | |Buzzing |Tumours | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Terminologies Associated with Cellular Changes (5 minutes) • Anaplasia refers to the loss of tissue differentiation and function that is characteristic of most malignancies • Atrophy refers to a decrease in the size of cells, with a subsequent decrease in the size of the affected tissue or organ; wasting away • Dysplasia refers to alteration in the size, shape, and organization of cells due to chronic irritation or inflammation; may progress to neoplasia (tumour formation, usually malignant) or revert to normal if the irritation is removed • Hyperplasia refers to an increase in the number of cells of a tissue due to an increase in the frequency of cell division • Hypertrophy is the increase in the size of cells without cell division • Metaplasia is the transformation of one type of cell into another STEP 3: Definition and Common Types of Cancers (15 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is Cancer? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled or abnormal cell proliferation o When cells in a part of the body divide without control, the excess tissue that develops is called a tumour or neoplasm o The study of tumours is called oncology o Tumours may be cancerous and often fatal, or they may be harmless o A cancerous neoplasm is called a malignant tumour or malignancy o One property of most malignant tumours is their ability to undergo metastasis , the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body o A benign tumour is a neoplasm that does not metastasize, an example is a wart o Most benign tumours may be removed surgically if they interfere with normal body function or become disfiguring o Some benign tumours can be inoperable and perhaps fatal Common types of cancers • The name of a cancer is derived from the type of tissue in which it develops • Most human cancers are carcinomas, malignant tumours that arise from epithelial cells • Melanomas, for example, are cancerous growths of melanocytes, skin epithelial cells that produce the pigment melanin • Sarcoma is a general term for any cancer arising from muscle cells or connective tissues. • For example, osteogenic sarcoma, the most frequent type of childhood cancer, destroys normal bone tissue • Leukaemia is a cancer of blood-forming organs characterized by rapid growth of abnormal leukocytes (white blood cells) • Lymphoma is a malignant disease of lymphatic tissue––for example, of lymph nodes STEP 4: Characteristics of Benign and Malignant Tumours(10 minutes) | |FACTOR |BENIGN |MALIGNANT | |1 |Growth rate |Slow |Rapid | |2 |Mitoses |Few |Many | |3 |Differentiation |Good |Poor | |4 |Nuclear chromatin |Normal |Increased | |5 |Local growth |Expansible |Infiltrative | |6 |Encapsulation |Present |Absent | |7 |Destruction of tissue |Negligible |Wide spread | |8 |Vascular invasion |None |Frequent | |9 |Metastasis |None |Frequent | STEP 5: Aetiology and Associated Factors for Tumours /Cancers (15 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are causes of cancers? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Several factors may trigger a normal cell to lose control and become cancerous • One cause is environmental agents: substances in the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat • A chemical agent or radiation that produces cancer is called a carcinogen Three classes of carcinogenic agents are: • Chemicals carcinogens • Radiant energy carcinogens • Microbial agents carcinogens Chemical Carcinogens o Chemical carcinogens have highly reactive electrophile groups that directly damage DNA, leading to mutations and eventually cancer o Direct-acting agents do not require metabolic conversion to become carcinogenic, while indirect-acting agents are not active until converted to an ultimate carcinogen by endogenous metabolic pathways o Polymorphisms of endogenous enzymes like cytochrome P-450 may influence carcinogenesis o Following exposure of

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Epithelial Tissues Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 4 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 4: Structure and Functions of Epithelial Tissues Total Session Time: 120 minutes+60 minutes assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Epithelial Tissue • Describe the Structure of Epithelial Tissues • Classify Epithelial Tissues • Explain Functions of Epithelial Tissues Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Charts, OHP, Multimedia Projector, Computer, Pointer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction of Learning | | | | |Tasks | |2 |15 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Epithelial | | | |Brainstorming |Tissues | |3 |15minutes |Presentation |Structure of Epithelial | | | | |Tissues | |4 |40 minutes |Presentation |Classification of Epithelial | | | |Brainstorming |tissue | |5 |25 minutes |Presentation |General Functions of | | | |Buzzing |Epithelial Tissues | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |8 |10 minutes |Presentation |Take home assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of epithelial Tissues (15 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions: | | | |What is epithelial tissue? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Epithelial tissues are linings of the various passages inside the body. STEP 3: Structure of Epithelial Tissues (15minutes) General Structure of Epithelial Tissues • Epithelium is a group of closely associated cells with scanty intercellular materials that cover external and internal surfaces of the body • They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands • Epithelial tissues are widely spread throughout the body • The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with no intercellular material between the cells or very little intercellular materials • It also forms all glands including endocrine and exocrine glands • The cells are attached to the underlying connective tissue known as the basement membrane • The basement membrane is a connective tissue structure where the epithelial cells are attached • Cells of epithelial tissue appear in different shapes and structure • These differences reflect the functions of the epithelium STEP 4: Classification of Epithelial Tissues (40minutes) |Activity: brainstorming (20 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions. | | | | | |What are the classes of epithelial tissues? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond? | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | | | | | Classification according to the cell shape • Squamous cells: are flat cells with an irregular flattened shape • Cuboidal cells: have a shape similar to a cube, meaning its width is the same size as its height • Columnar cells: are taller than they are wide Classification based on number of layers (Stratification) o Simple epithelia o Stratified epithelia o Pseudostratified epithelia Simple Epithelium ▪ Cells are organized in a single layer and therefore all cells are attached to the basement membrane ▪ Because the shapes of the cells include possible function, they are found in different organs depending on their function: ▪ There are three types of simple epithelium: Simple squamous epithelium, Simple cuboidal epithelium, Simple columnar epithelium Simple Squamous Epithelium ▪ All Squamous cells are flat cells with an irregular flattened shape ▪ It is a one-cell layer of simple squamous epithelium ▪ Forms a thin membrane and therefore it is found in places where exchange of material from one compartment to the other occurs. ▪ Squamous cells can be found in the heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and alveoli of the lung ▪ They allow free diffusion Simple Cuboidal Epithelium ▪ This consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely together lying on a basement membrane. ▪ Forms secretory cells, lining of the small ducts of the gland sand it covers the outer surfaces of organs such as the ovaries and in the kidney tubules ▪ Are actively involved in secretion, absorption and excretion Simple Columnar Epithelium ▪ This is formed by a single layer of cells, rectangular in shape lying on a basement membrane. ▪ It is found lining the organs of the alimentary tract. ▪ Consists of mixture of cells, some absorb the products of digestion and others secrete mucus. Stratified Epithelia • Consists of several layers of cells of various shapes • The superficial layers grow up from below • Basement membranes are usually absent • The main function of compound epithelium is to protect underlying structures • There are two types: Stratified and transitional Stratified squamous epithelium • Consists of several layers of cells of different shapes • The cells are arranged into superficial, intermediate and basal (deep) layers • In the deepest layers the cells are mainly columnar and, as they grow towards the surface, they become flattened. • It is the main protective epithelium of the body external surface for example in the skin it forms the epidermis • There are two types: Non keratinized stratified epithelium and Keratinized stratified epithelium o Keratinized stratified epithelium ▪ Refers to cells that has become hardened and died. ▪ The cells have a tough fibrous protein called keratin that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from heat,

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Connective Tissues Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 5 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 5: Structure and Functions of Connective Tissues Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define connective tissue • Outline Type of Cells Found in Connective Tissues • Outline Type of Fibres Found in Connective Tissue • Explain Classification and Functions of Connective Tissues • Identify Specialized Connective Tissue Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Worksheet 5.1 : Different Types of Connective Tissue SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | | |minutes | | | |2 |05 |Presentation, |Definition of Connective Tissue | | |minutes |Buzzing | | |3 |10 |Presentation, |Type of cells found in connective| | |minutes |Brainstorming |tissues | |4 |30 |Presentation |Type of fibres found in | | |minutes | |connective tissue | |5 |30 |Presentation |Classification and Functions of | | |minutes | |Connective | | | | |Tissues | |6 |30minutes|Presentation/Brainsto|Specialised connective tissue | | | |rming | | |7 |05 |Presentation |Key Points | | |minutes | | | |8 |05 |Presentation |Evaluation | | |minutes | | | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Connective Tissue (5 minutes) |Activity: buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to buzz on the following question: | | | |What is the connective tissue? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Connective tissue is the medium which surrounds and supports the other tissues of the body. o Composed predominantly of intercellular material (extracellular matrix) which is secreted mainly by the connective tissue cells, cells and fibres STEP 3: Types of Cells Found in Connective Tissue (10 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |Which types of cells are found in the connective tissues?’ | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | There are two types of cells: • Resident cells (fixed cells) • Wondering cells Resident Cells • Resident Cells are cells always found residing in the connective tissue These include: o Fibroblasts: o Macrophages (histiocytes) o Mast cells o Adipocytes o Pigment cells (melanocytes) o Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells Fibroblasts o Are flat, spindle shaped cells with branching of cytoplasmic processes with elliptical and have elongated nucleus o The shape differs depending on activity o Fibroblasts are found in nearly all types of tissues o Active fibroblasts have abundant cytoplasm o Inactive fibroblasts (fibrocytes) are smaller and have diminished cytoplasm Functions of fibroblasts o Synthesis o Secretes connective tissue fibres, these include collagen, elastic and reticular fibres. o They also secrete substances such as glycosaminoglycans and glycoproteins found in the extracellular matrix (ground substance). o Differentiation into other cells: Fibroblasts are capable of changing into a variety of cell types depending on the body need. o Fibroblasts secrete connective tissue elements which help in remodelling the extracellular matrix, which is important in wound healing and tissue repair. Histiocytes (Tissue Macrophages) o They are polymorphic cells and can be ovoid or irregular with short and blunt processes. o They are derived from blood monocytes, which migrate into the tissues and transform become histiocytes. o Main role in tissue is phagocytosis and antigen presentation. Mast cells o Are large cells, round or oval in shape o Play an important role in allergic reactions o Mast cells are filled with secretory granules that are filled with substances of inflammation such as histamine and heparin o Heparin, is an anticoagulant and histamine, is released by the cells under allergic conditions give rise to oedema, bronchospasm and other forms of allergic reactions to the surrounding tissues Wondering cells • These are the cells which are temporarily found within the connective tissues depending on the needs of the body, example during infection. They include monocytes, lymphocytes and granulocyte STEP 4: Types of Fibre Found in Connective Tissue (25 minutes) There three types of fibres found in connective tissue: • Collagen fibres: Most abundant fibres formed by the union of many collagen fibrils that are made up of collagen proteins • Elastic fibres: These are fine fibres made up of elastin protein (tropoelastin) • They allow some degree of distention and stretching • Reticular fibres: Smaller fibres that branch and anastomose to form a netlike supporting framework known as reticulum Collagen Fibres o Most abundant fibres formed by the union of many collagen fibrils that are made up of collagen proteins o They are tough, inextensible and possess a high tensile strength and therefore stretching is restricted o They appear white in fresh sections o Form major part of tendons, ligaments, cartilage, teeth (Dentin and cementum) and bones o There are many types of collagen fibres but the most important are type I, II, III, and IV Elastic Fibres o These are fine fibres made up of elastin protein (tropoelastin) o They allow some degree of distention and stretching o When stretched they usually recover the original form and dimension when the force is eliminated and the elastic limit is not exceeded o Elastic fibres changes as the age advances where it loses its resilience o Appear yellow in fresh

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Bone Tissues Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 6 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 6: Structure and Functions of Bone Tissues Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to: • Define the Bone • Identify the Types of Bone • Describe the Bone Formation • Explain the Functions of Bones Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board , chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector, Transparencies, Anatomy Atlas and Models, LCD and Computer • Handout 6.1: Long bone SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ | | | | |Method |Content | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |15minutes |Presentation, |Definition of Bone | | | |Brainstorming | | |3 |20minutes |Presentation |Types of Bones | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation | | | | | |Bones Formation | |5 |40 minutes |Presentation |Functions of Bones | | | |Small group | | | | |discussion | | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of bone (15 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is a bone? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Bone is a hard and rigid tissue that forms the bony skeleton of the body. o Bone supports the body weight, o It provides attachment to muscles, o Acts as lever for movements, and provides protection to organs. o Inside the bone there are spaces, which are filled with the bone marrow that produce red blood cells, platelets and cells of the immune system. • Cells of the immune system produced in bone marrow include monocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells, neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils • The only difference with other connective tissues is that its ground substance is made up of inorganic salts, mostly calcium ions • The bone is highly vascularized, and in living conditions the bone appears pinkish in colour • Bone consists of: o Cells o Fibers o Ground substances • Bone Cells; The bone contains four types of cells namely the osteoprogenator cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and the osteoclasts • Bone Matrix (Intercellular substance);It is made up of the collagen fibers (osteocollagenous fibers), amorphous ground substance and inorganic salts which constitute about 74% of bone mass STEP 3: Types of Bones (20 minutes) • Long bones e.g. femur, tibia and fibula • Short bones e.g. carpals (wrist bones) • Flat bones e.g. sternum, ribs and most skull bones (skull) • Irregular bones e.g. vertebrae and some skull bones • Sesamoid bones e.g. patella (kneecap) Parts of the long bone • A long bone is one that has greater length than width. • A typical long bone consists of the following parts: • The diaphysis is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main portion of the bone [pic] Source: http://www.teachpe.com/images/anatomy/skeleton2.jpg(2015) Figure 6.1: Parts of a Long Bone Parts of the long bone • A long bone is one that has greater length than width. • A typical long bone consists of the following parts: o The diaphysis is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main portion of the bone. o The epiphyses (singular is epiphysis) are the proximal and distal ends of the bone. o The metaphyses (singular is metaphysis) are the regions between the diaphysis and the epiphyses. STEP 4: Bones Formation (30 minutes) • Bones formation is commonly referred to as ossification and it occurs in two processes o Intramembranous Ossification ▪ The bones that form by this process include most of skull bones such as frontal, parietal, maxilla, mandible, clavicle and parts of occipital and temporal bones. o Endochondral Ossification ▪ In endochondral ossification bone is formed from the pre-existing hyaline cartilage that has the shape that closely resembles the bone to be formed. ▪ Most long and irregular bones form via endochondral ossification, such as the base of the skull, vertebral column, the pelvis and bones of the extremities (limbs). ▪ During this process the cartilage is gradually replaced by bone. ▪ Only a small amount of cartilage remains covering the articular surfaces of the joints. ▪ During endochondral ossification the bone also grows in length and width. ▪ Generally flat bones develop by intramembranous ossification while long bones develop by intra cartilaginous ossification • Bones formation occurs in four main stages which are o Development of the ossification canters (special membrane) o Formation of bone matrix o Deposition of minerals or calcification o Formation of trabeculae and appearance of periosteum STEP5: Functions of Bones (40 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 30 minutes) | | | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the functions bones? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Support o The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues providing attachment points for the tendons of most skeletal muscles • Protection; The skeleton protects the most important internal organs from injury for example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones) protect the spinal cord, and the ribcage protects the heart and

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Common Disorders of Connective Tissues Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 7 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 7: Common Disorders of Connective Tissues Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • Session 5 & 6: Structure and function of connective tissue and bone tissue Learning Tasks By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to: • Define Connective Tissue Diseases • Mention Common Types of Connective Tissue Diseases • Explain Common Connective Tissue Diseases Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead projector • Computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |05 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Connective Tissue | | | |Buzzing |Diseases | |3 | |Presentation |Common types of Connective Tissue | | |05 minutes |Brainstorming |Diseases | |4 | |Presentation |Common Connective Tissue Diseases | | |35 minutes |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Connective Tissue Diseases (5 minutes) |Activity: buzzing(5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to buzz on the following question: | | | |What are connective tissue diseases? | | | |ALLOW students to buzz | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • A connective tissue diseases are diseases that affect the joints (parts of the body that connect the structures of the body together). o It is presented by the inflammation of the joints (arthritis) o It may be infective or non-infective. o In most cases, all signs of inflammation are present (swollen joints, hot, tender and red) and there is limitation of movements. STEP 3: Common Types of Connective Tissue Diseases ( 5 minutes) • Acute pyrogenic arthritis • Gout • Chronic joint disease • Osteoarthritis • Generalized bone disease o Osteomalacia o Osteoporosis STEP 4: Common Connective Tissue Diseases (35 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 15 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the common of connective tissue diseases? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Acute pyrogenic arthritis o This is the infection of the joints by pus-producing bacteria o It is caused by any pyrogenic bacteria like staphylococci. o The infection may start suddenly without any obvious cause or may occur from other septic focus nearby like osteomyelitis o The patients complain of pain, swelling and reduced movement of the joint • Gout o This is arthritis due to congenital abnormality of uric acid metabolism, leading to abnormal high uric acid in the blood. o Uric acid is deposited in joints and also around the joints and in the ear cartilages. o The kidney may be damaged and kidney stones may form in them. o The disease is commonest in men over 40 years. o The acute episodes may be precipitated by alcohol excess, surgery, infections or treatment with thiazide diuretics which raise serum uric acid even in normal people. o Patients experience irritability and malaise a day or two before acute attack of gout and sudden severe pain starts in one joint especially that of big toe. • Chronic joint disease o Rheumatoid arthritis ▪ The cause is thought to be abnormal immunological reactions. ▪ Women are affected then men at the age between 20 – 40 years and psychological factors are often involved. ▪ The patient notices pain and stiffness of a joint, then swollen joints and finally radiate to the wrist, knee and hips. o Osteoarthritis ▪ This is due to a degeneration of the articular cartilage of joints. ▪ It is common to older people. ▪ The exact cause is not certain but it comes with age particularly in people who have done heavy work. ▪ It also occurs after injuries that have involved a joint or bone. ▪ The only symptom is aching pain in the joints, worse at the end of the day and relieved by rest. • Generalized bone disease o Osteoporosis ▪ It is a condition in which the bones are thinned though their composition is normal. ▪ It can be caused by immobilization; when a limb is put in plaster or stay in bed for a long time, menopause in women, old age, Cushing’s syndrome and steroid treatment. ▪ The pain occurs only when there is bone fracture. o Osteomalacia ▪ This is a different form of weakening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency. ▪ It is common in adults. ▪ There are bone pains, often muscular weakness and may be tetany. ▪ The weakened bones may collapse and deform. STEP 4: Key Points (5 minutes) • A connective tissue disease is any disease that affects the joints and is presented by the inflammation of the joints. • Connective tissue diseases include acute pyrogenic arthritis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and osteomalacia. STEP 5: Evaluation (5minutes) • What are connective tissue diseases? • What are the common connective tissue diseases? References Nicholson, N.W. (1988). Non communicable diseases in adults. Nairobi, Kenya: African Medical and Research Foundation Scalon, V.C., & Sanders, T. (2007). Essentials of anatomy and physiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia,NY: F.A Davis Tortora, J.G., & Derrickson, B. (2009). Principles

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Muscle Tissues Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 8 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 8: Structure and Functions of Muscle Tissues Prerequisites None Total Session Time: 60 minutes Learning Tasks By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to: • Define Muscle and Cell Tissues • Mention types of Muscle Tissues • Describe Structure of Muscle Tissues • Describe Functions of Muscle Tissues Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector, Transparencies, Anatomy Atlas and Models, LCD and Computer • figure 8.1: The Muscle Fibres • figure8.2: o 8.2 a Skeletal, o 8.2 b Cardiac, o 8.2 c Smooth Muscle • Figure 8.3: The Neuron SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ | | | | |Method |Content | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |05 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Muscle and cell | | | |Brainstorming |Tissues | |3 | |Presentation |Types of Muscle Tissues | | |10minutes | | | |4 |10 minutes|Presentation |Structure of Muscle Tissues | |5 |20 minutes |Presentation |Function of Muscle Tissues | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Muscle and cell Tissues (5 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is a muscle tissue? | |What is a muscle cell? | |ALLOW few students to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Muscle tissue: specialized to contracts when it is stimulated and thus to exert a physical force on other tissue. o When a skeletal muscle contracts pulls on a bone and enhance movement, the heart muscle contracts and expel blood. o Other processes like digestion, waste elimination, breathing speech and blood circulation depends on muscular tissue. o The muscles are also an important source of body heat o As any other tissue, o muscular tissue is made up of cells Muscle Cells • Referred to as myocytes or muscle fibres o Muscle cells are usually grouped into bundle o Muscle cells are usually elongated and spindle-shaped o They function by shortening their length, approximating the two opposite points, which are attached to connective tissue structures such as septa, trabeculae, fasciae, tendons, periosteum or bone o The shortening of the muscle cell is called contraction o The structural unit of a muscle is a muscle fibre o The muscle fibres are made up of fibrils are divisible into individual filaments o The contractile property of muscle cells is determined by the presence of the filamentous contractile proteins, actin and myosin STEP 3: Types of Muscle Tissues (10 minutes) Types of Muscle Tissues • There are three types of muscle tissues which can be distinguished basing on both structure and functions, o Skeletal muscle tissues (striated voluntary muscle) o Cardiac muscle tissues (striated involuntary muscle) o Smooth muscle tissues (smooth involuntary muscle) Figure 8.1: Muscle Fibres [pic] STEP4: Structure of Muscle Tissues (10 minutes) Cardiac Muscle Tissue • This is a unique tissue found only in the walls of the heart. • Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue shows some of the characteristics of smooth muscle and some of skeletal muscle tissue. • Its fibres, like those of skeletal muscle, have cross-striations and contain numerous nuclei. • However, like smooth muscle tissue, it is involuntary. • Cardiac muscle forms the muscular wall of the heart the myocardium. • Some cardiac muscle is also present in the walls of the aorta, pulmonary vein, and Superior vena cava cardiac muscle contractions are not under voluntary control. • Heart rate is regulated intrinsically by a pacemaker, composed of special cardiac muscle fibres that are influenced by the autonomic nervous system. Figure 8.2 a. Cardiac muscle [pic] Source: Moore, K. L., &Agur, A. M. R. (2007) Smooth Muscle Tissue • This type is also called non-striated or involuntary muscle. • Each cell has many myofibrils which lie parallel to one another in the direction of the long axis of the cell. • They are not arranged in a definite striped (striated) pattern, as in skeletal muscles, hence • This muscle is mainly visceral in distribution, forming the contractile portion of the wall of the digestive tract from the mid-oesophagus to anus, including the ducts of glands associated with the system. • It is found in the respiratory, urinary and genital system; in arteries, veins and larger lymphatics, in the dermis and in the iris and ciliary body of the eye. • In these locations, it functions in moderating and maintaining lumen diameter of the hollow viscera. • Smooth muscle is composed of long spindle-like cells, which in cross- section appear as narrow circular profiles. • Each cell possesses a characteristic centrally located elongated nucleus. • In contracted cells, these nuclei are frequently folded or pleated. • At the poles of the nucleus lie numerous mitochondria, well-developed rough endoplasmic reticulum, and a large golgi apparatus. Figure 8.2 b. Smooth muscle [pic] Source: Moore, K. L., &Agur, A. M. R. (2007) Skeletal Muscle Tissue • This type is described as skeletal because it forms those muscles that form movement of the skeleton; it is also known as striated or voluntary muscles. • Striated because striations can be seen on microscopic examination, and voluntary as it is under conscious control. • It consists of bundles of very long cylindrical, multinucleated cells called muscle

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04103 Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissues Human Anatomy and Physiology • Source Session/Topic 9 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 9: Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissues Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to: • Define Nervous Tissue • Identify Components of Nervous Tissue • Distinguish Different Types of Neurons • Distinguish Different Types of Neuroglia and their Functions Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Overhead Projector, Transparencies, Anatomy Atlas and Models, LCD and Computer SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ | | | | |Method |Content | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 | |Presentation |Definition of Nervous Tissue | | |05 minutes |Brainstorming | | |3 |05minutes |Presentation |Components of Nervous Tissue | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Types of Neurons | |5 |25 minutes |Presentation, |Types of Neuroglia and their | | | |Buzzing |Function | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Nervous Tissue (5minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | |What is nervous tissues? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Nervous tissue or nerve tissue: • Is the main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity. o Nervous tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated communications network. STEP 3: Components of Nervous Tissue (5minutes) • Structurally, nerve tissue consists of two classes of cell types. o Neurons, the nervous tissue is made up of billions of cells called neurons that are specialized to respond to stimuli and to transmit a signal to activate other cells. o Glial cells or neuroglia, non-excitable supporting cells, participate in neural activity, neural nutritional and defence processes of the central nervous system. • A Typical Neuron Consist of: o Cell body, which has many radiating processes called dendrites, which are specialized to receive signals from other neurons. o Axon, a single long process, which is capable of generating a nerve impulse and conducting it over a long distance to stimulate other neurons in the CNS, or muscular or secretory cells elsewhere in the body. o Neurons usually receive information through dendrites; the information is integrated in the cell body and transmitted onwards via axons. • STEP 4 : Types of Neuron (10 minutes) • Unipolar neurons, these neurons have single processes, the axon arising from the cell body. • Unipolar neurons have no dendrites. • Bipolar neurons, have two processes (both axons) emerging directly and oppositely from the cell body. • Bipolar neurons are found in the cochlear and vestibular ganglia as well as retina and olfactory mucosa. • Multipolar neurons, has one axon and many dozens of dendrites. • Most neurons in the CNS are multipolar. • Pseudo unipolar neurons, has a single short process (an axon) with a T- shaped branching, one branch extending towards the CNS, and the other extending to a periphery ending. • In typical pseudo unipolar neurons, both branches are axons on both structural and electrophysiological grounds. Classification of Neurons according to their Functional Roles • Motor neurons are involved in stimulating muscles or glands (effector organs) in the periphery. • Sensory neurons, sensory neurons receive sensory stimuli from the environment or from tissues and organs of the body. • Interneurons, maintain connection between neurons in the CNS, forming complex functional chains or circuits [pic] Source: Strandring, (2005) Figure 9.3: A Neuron STEP 5: Neuroglia and their Functions (25 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the question for 2 minutes | | | |What is neuroglia? | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Neuroglia (Glial Cells) • These are supporting cells found in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system • There are six types of supporting cells • Four are found in the CNS and two are found in the PNS • Neuroglia found in central nervous system are o Astrocytes ▪ Star-shaped, abundant, and versatile ▪ Guide the migration of developing neurons, they are found in large numbers adjacent to blood vessels They form a blood-brain barrier, i.e. the blood is separated from neurones by capillary wall and a layer of astrocytes foot process o Microglia ▪ Specialized immune cells that act as the macrophages of the CNS ▪ They derived from monocytes o Ependymal Cells ▪ These cells form the epithelial lining of the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord o Oligodendrocytes, ▪ These are found in clusters around cell bodies ▪ They form and maintain the myelin, having the same functions as schwann cells in peripheral nerves ▪ These cells have clinical importance as most tumours of the brain are arising from them Glia Cells Found in the Peripheral Nervous System • Satellite cells, surround clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS, they are of unknown function • Schwann cells, form myelin sheaths around the larger