Diagnostic Radiology Notes

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Musculoskeletal System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Musculoskeletal System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Musculoskeletal System Axial skeleton Outside the bony skull there is a layer with fascia and muscles known as scalp which covers the skull The spine Atlas Axis (C2) Thoracic spine Lumbar spine Sacrum MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM Musculoskeletal System The musculoskeletal system is an interconnected structure of bone, muscle, cartilage, tendons, and other tissues that give our bodies form, support, movement, and the ability to do work. Skeleton is made up of 206 bones that articulates together to form joints that support balance and movement. It is classified into two forms,which are; 1.Axial skeleton 2.Appendicular skeleton Axial skeleton It consists of skull,spine and pelvis bones The Skull Skull is the most superior part of the bodily structure and has total of 22 bones which are divided in two categories,which are; 1.Cranial bones (8 bones) 2.Facial bones (14 bones) Outside the bony skull there is a layer with fascia and muscles known as scalp which covers the skull And inside the skull there is strong layer that protects the brain from trauma is called meninge Meninges has three layers,which are; 1.Dura matter 2.Arachnoid matter 3.Pia matter The space btn dura and arachnoid matter is called subdural space while a space btn arachnoid and pia matter is called subarachnoid space Cranial bones The spine It is fundamental structure in body balance,support,coordination and movement.It consists of 33 vertebral bodies that are divided into 5 categories depending on the position and function. Cervical spine The cervical spine is the first part of the spinal column, consisting of 7 cervical vertebrae, C1-C7. These vertebrae are ring-like bony structures supporting the weight of the head. The first two bones, C1 and C2, are highly specialized, known as the atlas and axis.It is found at the neck posteriorly surrounded by adjacent muscles that support neck movement i.e sternocleiodomastoid Atlas Located at the top of the spine,the atlas forms the articulation with the occipital bone, connecting the skull and spine. Its primary difference from the other vertebrae in the cervical region is the absence of a vertebral body and spinous process. Its lateral masses are connected by the anterior and posterior arches. Axis (C2) It forms the pivot upon which the Atlas rotates (atlanto-axial joint), letting us rotate our head independently of the body. The most identifiable landmark of this bone is the strong odontoid process or dens that rises perpendicularly from the upper surface of the body and articulates with the atlas’ anterior arch. There are also articulations between the axis’s superior articular facets and the atlas’ inferior articular facets. Between two vertebral bodies there is catilagenous roundish pad known as intervertebral disc. Thoracic spine It is below the cervical spine and it is made up of 12 vertebral bodies.Bends posteriorly creating thoracic kyphosis. Has articulating facets both superiorly and inferiorly for rib attachment thus involved in creating thoracic cage posteriorly Lumbar spine Has 5 vertebral bodies joined up by intervertebral discs.They are wide and tough as it creates the base of the spine.It is tightly hold up by psoas and iliopsoas muscles.It bend anteriorly resulting into lumnar lordosis. Sacrum It consist of 5 fused vertebra with 4 paired sacral foramens for passage of spinal nerves.It is involved in creating pelvic brim posteriorly and it is attached to iliac spine by sacroiliac joint in both left and right side Coccyx It consist of 4 fused small vertebral bodies and it is the last segment of the spine.It is known as the spine tail. Pelvis ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Nervous System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Nervous System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Nervous System Division of nervous system: Present in the cranial cavity Don’t get confused about simple anatomy on parts of the brain- fore brain,mid brain and hind brain Brain and spinal cord composed of grey mater and white mater Brain The diencephalon is located at the center of the brain, and its name (Greek for “between-brain”) reflects that. The corpus callosum is the bridge between the left and right sides of the brain The Meninges Ventricular system Ventricles of the Brain lateral ventricles Fourth ventricle It is also found inside the subarachnoid space of the meninges which surrounds both the brain and the spinal chord. Ependymal cell, Composition of CSF PNS Cranial nerve spinal cord Spinal nerves T1–T6 Intercostals and trunk above the waist Brain Present in the cranial cavity. Diencephalon. Hypothalamus. Meninges of the Brain. Peripheral Nervous System. Nervous System Nervous System The nervous system is responsible for controlling much of the body, both through somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) functions It is very important in helping to maintain balance of the body Made up of nerve tissue neurones and neuroglia Nervous system enables the body to react to continuous changes in its internal and external environment Division of nervous system: Nervous system is divided Structurally into Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system Functionally into Somatic Autonomic Present in the cranial cavity Surrounded by three layers of meninges Don’t get confused about simple anatomy on parts of the brain- fore brain,mid brain and hind brain brain has 2 hemispheres namely right and left hemisphere has 4 lobes namely occipital lobe,pariental lobe,frontal lobe and temporal lobe Brain and spinal cord composed of grey mater and white mater Grey mater formed by nerve cell bodies White mater formed by interconnecting fibre tract system Brain Forebrain (prosencephalon)-cerebrum,thalamus+hypothalamus form limbic system(regulation of thirst, hunger, mood) and basal ganglia (reward processing, habit formation, movement and learning Midbrain(mesencephalon)-tectum,tegmentum Hind brain (rhombencephalon)- cerebellum,pons,medulla oblangata Applied anatomy:degeneration of basal ganglia cells uncoordinated movements of skeletal muscles e.g in Parkinson’disease NB: midbrain, pons and medulla form the brain stem Development of brain Nervous System v vv The diencephalon is located at the center of the brain, and its name (Greek for “between-brain”) reflects that. It’s surrounded by the brain stem and cerebellum on the bottom and the cerebral cortex on top. The corpus callosum is the bridge between the left and right sides of the brain The corpus callosum (Latin for "tough body") The Meninges The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord are completely covered by three membranes, the meninges lying between the skull and the brain, and between vertebrae and the spinal cord. o Dura mater o Arachnoid mater o Pia mater Ventricular system Ventricular system is a communicating system of cavities underlined by choroid plexus which produce cerebrospinal fluid and transport it around the cranial cavity. They are lined by ependymal cells. There are ventricles:- Lateral ventricles Third ventricle Fourth ventricle Central Canal. Ventricles of the Brain Within the brain there are four irregular shaped cavities containing cerebrospinal fluid. They are called ventricles, these are o Right and left lateral ventricles o third ventricle and fourth ventricle lateral ventricles lateral ventricles are the two largest cavities of the ventricular system of the human brain and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Each cerebral hemisphere contains a lateral ventricle, known as the left or right ventricle They open into the 3rd ventricle through the interventricular foramina (of monro). They are separated from each other by a thin membrane, the septum lucidium,and are lined by ciliated epithelium (ependymal cells). 3rd ventrical It is a cavity situated below the lateral ventricles between the two parts of the thalamus. Fourth ventricle It is situated below and behind the third ventricle, between the cerebellum and pons. It communicates with the subarachnoid space by 3 foramina in its roof, and continuous below with central canal of the spinal cord The fourth ventricle contains cerebrospinal fluid. It has a diamond shape and is located in the upper portion of the medulla CEREBRAL SPINAL FLUID It is also found inside the subarachnoid space of the meninges which surrounds both the brain and the spinal chord. In addition, a space inside the spinal chord called the central canal also contains cerebrospinal fluid CSF is produced mainly by a structure called the choroid plexus in the lateral, third and fourth ventricles. A small amount is also produced by ependymal cells. Ependymal cell, type of neuronal support cell (neuroglia) that forms the epithelial lining of the ventricles (cavities) in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. Composition of CSF It consists of Water Mineral salts Glucose Plasma proteins: small amount of albumin and globulin Small amount of creatinine, urea A few leukocytes It is slightly alkaline Functions of CSF Applied anatomy Hydrocephalus PNS 12 pairs of cranial nerves—leave the brain and pass through the foramina in the skull 31 pairs of spinal nerves—leave the spinal cord and pass through intervertebral foramina Cranial nerve any of the nerves that arise in pairs from the lower surface of the brain one on each side and pass through openings in the skull to the periphery of the body and that comprise 12 pairs. They can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or a combination of both, primarily responsible for the sensory and motor functions of the head and neck (one of these nerves targets organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities as part of the parasympathetic nervous system). spinal cord cervical segments thorathic segments lumbar segments sacral segments coccygeal segements Origin of spinal nerves Spinal nerves Actions of the spinal nerves Level Motor Function C1–C6: Neck flexors C1–T1: Neck extensors C3, C4, C5=Phrenic nerve Supply diaphragm

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Nervous Tissue CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Nervous Tissue using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Nervous tissue or nerve tissue: Components of Nervous Tissue A typical Neuron consist of: Types of Neurons Classification of Neurons according to their Functional Roles Neuroglia (Glial Cells) Microglia Glia Cells Found in the Peripheral Nervous System NERVOUS TISSUE Nervous tissue or nerve tissue: Is a complex network of cells that makes up the brain,spinal cord and nerves which are responsible for controlling and coordinating many of body’s activities. It creates two parts of the nervous system,which are; 1.The brain and spinal cord of the Central nervous system (CNS) and 2.The peripheral nerves of the Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nervous tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated communications network. Components of Nervous Tissue Structurally, nerve tissue consists of two classes of cell types. 1.Neurons, Nervous tissue is made up of billions of cells called neurons that are specialized to respond to stimuli and to transmit a signal to activate other cells. 2.Glial cells or neuroglia (non-excitable supporting cells), They participate in neural activity, neural nutritional and defence processes of the central nervous system. A typical Neuron consist of: Cell body, which has many radiating processes called dendrites, which are specialized to receive signals from other neurons. Axon, a single long process, which is capable of generating a nerve impulse and conducting it over a long distance to stimulate other neurons in the CNS, or muscular or secretory cells elsewhere in the body. Neurons usually receive information through dendrites; the information is integrated in the cell body and transmitted onwards via axons. Types of Neurons 1.Unipolar neurons, These neurons have single processes, the axon arising from the cell body.Unipolar neurons have no dendrites. 2.Bipolar neurons, Have two processes (both axons) emerging directly and oppositely from the cell body. Bipolar neurons are found in the cochlear and vestibular ganglia as well as retina and olfactory mucosa. 3.Multipolar neurons, Has one axon and many dozens of dendrites.Most neurons in the CNS are multipolar. 4.Pseudo unipolar neurons, Has a single short process (an axon) with a T-shaped branching, one branch extending towards the CNS, and the other extending to a periphery ending.In typical pseudo unipolar neurons, both branches are axons on both structural and electrophysiological grounds. Classification of Neurons according to their Functional Roles Motor neurons, They are involved in stimulating muscles or glands (effector organs) in the periphery. Sensory neurons, Sensory neurons receive sensory stimuli from the environment or from tissues and organs of the body. Inter-neurons, They maintain connection between neurons in the CNS, forming complex functional chains or circuits Neuroglia (Glial Cells) These are supporting cells found in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.There are six types of supporting cells whereas four are found in the CNS and two are found in the PNS. Neuroglia found in central nervous system are; Astrocytes Star-shaped, abundant, and versatile cells which guide the migration of developing neurons, they are found in large numbers adjacent to blood vessels. They form a blood-brain barrier, i.e. the blood is separated from neurones by capillary wall and a layer of astrocytes foot process. Microglia Specialized immune cells that act as the macrophages of the CNS and they derived from monocytes. Ependymal Cells These cells form the epithelial lining of the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. Oligodendrocytes These are found in clusters around cell bodies.They form and maintain the myelin, having the same functions as schwann cells in peripheral nerves. These cells have clinical importance as most tumours of the brain are arising from them. Glia Cells Found in the Peripheral Nervous System Satellite cells, surround clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS, they are of unknown function Schwann cells, form myelin sheaths around the larger nerve fibers in the PNS, they are for neuronal regeneration ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Overview Of Muscle Tissues CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Overview Of Muscle Tissues using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. SKELETAL MUSCLE Overview Of Muscle Tissues CONNECTIVE TISSUE SHEATHS Epimysium. An overcoat of dense irregular connective tissue surrounds the whole muscle. ATTACHMENTS Muscle attachments, whether origin or insertion, may be direct or indirect. SMOOTH MUSCLE Smooth muscle lacks the coarse connective tissue sheaths seen in skeletal muscle. CARDIAC MUSCLE NERVOUS TISSUE NEUROGLIA Neuroglia in the CNS include astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes. NEURONS 1. They have extreme longevity. Given good nutrition, neurons can function optimally for a lifetime (over 100 years). OVERVIEW OF MUSCLE AND NERVOUS TISSUES The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. First, skeletal and smooth muscle cells (but not cardiac muscle cells) are elongated and, for this reason, are called muscle fibers. Second, muscle contraction depends on two kinds of myofilaments, which are the muscle equivalents of the actin- or myosin-containing microfilaments. These two proteins play a role in motility and shape changes in virtually every cell in the body, but this property reaches its highest development in the contractile muscle fibers. Third, whenever you see the prefixes myo or mys or sarco (flesh), the reference is to muscle SKELETAL MUSCLE Each skeletal muscle is a discrete organ, made up of several kinds of tissues. Although skeletal muscle fibers predominate, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and substantial amounts of connective tissue are also present. A skeletal muscle’s shape and its attachments in the body can be examined easily without the help of a microscope. Overview Of Muscle Tissues In general, each muscle is served by one nerve, an artery, and by one or more veins, all of which enter or exit near the central part of the muscle and branch profusely through its connective tissue sheaths. Unlike cells of cardiac and smooth muscle tissues, which can contract in the absence of nerve stimulation, each skeletal muscle fiber is supplied with a nerve ending that controls its activity. Overview Of Muscle Tissues Contracting muscle fibers use huge amounts of energy, a situation that requires more or less continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrients via the arteries. Muscle cells also give off large amounts of metabolic wastes that must be removed through veins if contraction is to remain efficient. Muscle capillaries, the smallest of the body’s blood vessels, are long and winding and have numerous cross-links, features that accommodate changes in muscle length. CONNECTIVE TISSUE SHEATHS In an intact muscle, the individual muscle fibers are wrapped and held together by several different connective tissue sheaths. Together these connective tissue sheaths support each cell and reinforce the muscle as a whole, preventing the bulging muscles from bursting during exceptionally strong contractions. Overview Of Muscle Tissues Endomysium. Each individual muscle fiber is surrounded by a fine sheath of connective tissue consisting of areolar and reticular fibers. Perimysium and fascicles. Within each skeletal muscle, the endomysium-wrapped muscle fibers are grouped into fascicles that resemble bundles of sticks. Surrounding each fascicle is a layer of fibrous connective tissue called perimysium. Epimysium. An overcoat of dense irregular connective tissue surrounds the whole muscle. This coat is the epimysium, a name that means outside the muscle. Sometimes the epimysium blends with the deep fascia that lies between neighboring muscles or the superficial fascia deep to the skin ATTACHMENTS Most skeletal muscles span joints and are attached to bones (or other structures) in at least two places. When a muscle contracts, the movable bone, the muscle’s insertion, moves toward the immovable or less movable bone, the muscle’s origin. In the muscles of the limbs, the origin typically lies proximal to the insertion Muscle attachments, whether origin or insertion, may be direct or indirect. In direct, or fleshy, attachments, the epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum of a bone or perichondrium of a cartilage. In indirect attachments, the muscle’s connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle either as a ropelike tendon or as a sheetlike aponeurosis. The tendon or aponeurosis anchors the muscle to the connective tissue covering of a skeletal element (bone or cartilage) or to the fascia of other muscles SMOOTH MUSCLE Smooth muscle fibers are spindle-shaped cells, each with one centrally located nucleus. Typically, they have a diameter of 5–10 µm and are 30–200 µm long. Skeletal muscle fibers are some 10 times wider and thousands of times longer. Smooth muscle lacks the coarse connective tissue sheaths seen in skeletal muscle. However, a small amount of fine connective tissue, secreted by the smooth muscles themselves and containing blood vessels and nerves, is found between smooth muscle fibers. Most smooth muscle is organized into sheets of closely apposed fibers. These sheets occur in the walls of all but the smallest blood vessels and in the walls of hollow organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts CARDIAC MUSCLE like skeletal muscle, is striated, and it contracts by the sliding filament mechanism. However, in contrast to the long, cylindrical, multinucleate skeletal muscle fibers, cardiac cells are short, fat, branched, and interconnected. Each fiber contains one or at most two large, pale, centrally located nuclei. The intercellular spaces are filled with a loose connective tissue matrix (the endomysium) containing numerous capillaries. This delicate matrix is connected to the fibrous skeleton, which acts both as a tendon and as an insertion, giving the cardiac cells something to pull or exert their force against Overview Of Muscle Tissues Large mitochondria account for 25–35% of the volume of cardiac cells and give cardiac cells a high resistance to fatigue. Most of the remaining volume is occupied by myofibrils composed of fairly typical sarcomeres. The sarcomeres have Z discs, A bands, and I bands that reflect the arrangement of the thick (myosin) and thin (actin)

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Pathophysiology of CARDIOVASCULAR-SYSTEM CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Pathophysiology of CARDIOVASCULAR-SYSTEM using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Definition of the Cardiovascular Disorder Cardiovascular disorders are the disorders of the heart and blood vessels Common Disorders of Cardiovascular System The common disorders of the cardiovascular system include: Arteriosclerosis Angina pectoris Cardiac Arrhythmias (dysrhythmias) Hypertension and its Risk Factors Hypertension is sometimes classified as systolic or diastolic depending on the measurement that is elevated Hypertension must be diagnosed in early stages Key points Evaluation Disorders of cardiovascular system Definition of the Cardiovascular Disorder What is the cardiovascular disorder? Cardiovascular disorders are the disorders of the heart and blood vessels Vascular disease is responsible for more morbidity and mortality than any other category of human disease Cardiovascular disorders are due to multiple factors e.g age (advanced age), genetics, and lifestyle (Sedentary/obesity, cigarette smoking,alcohol,diet ) Common Disorders of Cardiovascular System What are the common disorders of cardiovascular system? The common disorders of the cardiovascular system include: Hypertension= Hypotension= low blood pressure Cardiac failure= reduced heart functioning Ischaemic heart diseases -Angina pectoris= -Myocardial infarction=death of cardiac muscles Arrhythmias= Irregular heat beating Shock = A clinical syndrome which follows critical reduction of blood flow within the microcirculation with inadequate tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery to that tissue Varicose veins= swollen twisted veins in legs Aneurisms= Arteriosclerosis= Atherosclerosis … Varicose veins Arteriosclerosis Arteriosclerosis means hardening of the arteries Is the term used to describe degenerative changes in small arteries, commonly occurring in older individuals and diabetics Elasticity is lost, and the walls become thick and hard The lumen gradually narrows and may become obscured This leads to diffuse ischemia and death in various tissues such as those of the: heart, kidneys, or brain Atherosclerosis It is the condition in which an artery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty materials such as cholesterol (accumulation of lipids in blood vessels causing occlusion) Is differentiated by the presence of atheromas (plaques consisting of lipids, cells, and cell debris, often with attached thrombi, which form inside the walls of large arteries) Atheromas form primarily in large arteries such as the aorta and the coronary arteries. Angina pectoris It is an episodic, reversible oxygen insufficiency This condition is the most common form of IHD Angina pectoris is applied to varying forms of transient chest pain that are attributable to insufficient myocardial oxygen Atherosclerotic lesions that produce a narrowing of the coronary arteries are the major cause of angina However, tachycardia(increased heart rate), anaemia, hyperthyroidism, and hypotension can cause an oxygen imbalance Myocardial Infarction (HEART ATTACK) Myocardial infarction (MI) is an area of dead cardiac muscle tissue, with or without haemorrhage Myocardial infarction is produced by an obstruction of the coronary artery, which results in a lack of oxygen to the tissue For those who survive an myocardial infarction, there is a notably greater risk of a second myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, or a stroke occurring within a short time Cardiac Arrhythmias (dysrhythmias) They are deviations from the normal cardiac rate or rhythm They may result from damage to the heart‘s conduction system or from systemic causes such as, fever, hypoxia, stress, drug toxicity, and electrolyte imbalances. Congestive heart failure (CHF) Is one of the most common cardiovascular disorders This condition occurs when the heart is not able to pump enough blood to meet the body‘s metabolic demands. Heart failure may be caused by any disorder that affects the heart‘s ability to receive or eject blood Aneurysm It is a localized abnormal dilation of a blood vessel or the heart When an aneurysm involves all three layers of the arterial wall (intima, media, and adventitia) or the attenuated wall of the heart, it is called a true aneurysm Atherosclerotic, syphilitic, and congenital aneurysms, and ventricular aneurysms that follow transmural myocardial infarctions, are examples of this type Types of aneurysm Hypertension and its Risk Factors Hypertension is elevation of blood pressure (B.P) usually systolic blood pressure is ≥ 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure is ≥ 90mmHg measured on three separate occasions. There are three classifications of hypertension: Primary or essential hypertension It is idiopathic (occurring spontaneously from an unknown cause) Essential hypertension develops when the blood pressure is consistently above 140/90 mmHg Secondary hypertension It results from renal (e.g., nephrosclerosis) or endocrine (e.g., hyperaldosteronism) disease, or pheochromocytoma=benign tumor of the adrenal medulla,Renal artery stenosis In this type of hypertension, the underlying problem must be resolved Malignant hypertension It is an uncontrollable, severe, and rapidly progressive form of hypertension with many complications Hypertension is sometimes classified as systolic or diastolic depending on the measurement that is elevated For example, elderly persons with loss of elasticity in the arteries frequently have high systolic pressure and a low diastolic value Risk Factors for Hypertension: Family history (genetic) Stress Obesity Smoking Drinking too much alcohol Diabetes mellitus Excessive blood lipid levels. Hypertension must be diagnosed in early stages When it is not properly treated, the risk of stroke, coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, and renal failure increases Key points The common disorders of the cardiovascular system includes hypertension, hypotension, cardiac failure, ischaemic heart diseases, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, shock, varicose veins, aneurisms, arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis There are many factors that contribute to heart disease, such as age, genetics, and lifestyle. Proper diet, exercise, avoiding cigarette smoking, and getting enough rest can do a lot to keep the heart functioning for a long time. Hypertension is elevation of blood pressure (B.P) usually systolic blood pressure is ≥ 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure is ≥ 90mmHg measured on three separate occasions Evaluation What is cardiovascular disorders? Identify common cardiovascular diseases? What is congestive heart failure? What are the risk factors of hypertension? ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean,

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Features of Gastrointestinal Pathologies Dysphagia –difficult in swallowing Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system PEPTIC ulcer Disease Congenital GI malformation Disorders of Gastrointestinal System Features of Gastrointestinal Pathologies Regardless of the cause and type of a disease Gastrointestinal (GI )pathologies have the following presenting features: Abdominal pain Gastrointestinal bleeding Diarrhoea Steatorrhea=fatty stool Melena=Black stool (upper GI bleeding) Haematochezia=(fresh blood in stool) Hematemesis=Vomiting of blood Constipation Nausea Vomiting Dysphagia –difficult in swallowing Odynophagia –painful swallowing Gastroesophageal reflux Anorexia Weight loss Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) The terms heartburn, acid regurgitation, sour stomach, and bitter taste are all used to describe GERD symptoms Reflux occurs when the oesophageal epithelium is exposed to gastric secretions Some degree of gastric reflux is considered normal, but symptoms occur when the mucosa's tolerance to acid is exceeded PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system In addition to the typical symptoms of heartburn or chest pain, extra-oesophageal manifestations of GERD include laryngitis, asthma, and chronic cough GERD develops when acidic gastric contents reflux into the oesophagus and remain there long enough to overcome the resistance of the oesophageal epithelium. PEPTIC ulcer Disease Gastric ulcer Duodenal ulcer Oesophageal cancer Congenital GI malformation Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis Gastric outlet obstruction (pyloric stenosis) … ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Physiology Of Muscular System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Physiology Of Muscular System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic What is Anatomy and Physiology? What is physiology ? What is Pathophysiology? A: What is muscular system ? Anatomy and physiology of the MSS Characteristics of muscles Functions of the muscular system B: Types of muscles Smooth muscles 3. Skeletal muscles Other classifications. Skeletal muscle is divided into… Muscle Fatigue : is the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated stimuli. Defining of terms Skeletal muscle fiber The myofibrils contain 2 kinds of protein filaments . Striation pattern of skeletal muscles M line contains three proteins Muscle response C: Types of muscle contraction. i) Skeletal muscle contraction Major Events(steps) of skeletal-muscle contraction Physiology Of Muscular System Types of skeletal muscle contractions Oxygen Debt Role of Calcium in muscle contraction Involuntary muscle movement. ii) Smooth Muscle Contraction iii) Cardiac muscle contraction B. MUSCULAR DISORDERS INTRO… 1.Muscle Atrophy Causes: 2. Muscular Dystrophy The most common types of muscular dystrophy appear to be due to a genetic deficiency of the muscle protein dystrophin. Becker Muscular Dystrophy – is also a sex­linked disorder 3. DISEASES OF MUSCLE TONE ii. Hypotonia – is the muscular disease characterized by decrease in muscle tone. Clinical conditions associated with hypotonia are: 4. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS symptoms Clinical Terms: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM What is Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy and Physiology is the study of the human body. Anatomy is concerned with the structure of a part. For example, the stomach is a J-shaped, pouch like organ. The stomach wall has thick folds, which disappear as the stomach expands to increase its capacity. What is physiology ? Physiology is concerned with the function of a part. For example, the stomach temporarily stores food, secretes digestive juices, and passes on partially digested food to the small intestine. It is a branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of living things and physical and chemical phenomena involved. Physiology is simply the science of life. What is Pathophysiology? Refers to the study of abnormal changes in body functions that are the causes, consequences, or concomitants of disease processes. Components of pathophysiology- Aspects of disease process. Cause(aetiology) Pathogenesis (mechanism of its development) Morphological changes (the structural alterations induced in the cells and organs of the body) Clinical significances (functional consequences of the morphologic changes) A: What is muscular system ? Is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles which permits movement of the body, maintains posture, breathing and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system is controlled by the nervous system by voluntary and involuntary mechanism. Together with the skeletal system it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the body. They are highly integrated Anatomy and physiology of the MSS Musculoskeletal system includes: Bones Joints Muscles Tendons Ligaments Bursae Musculoskeletal system Characteristics of muscles Excitability – Capability to respond to the stimulus carried from the motor neurons. Contractility – ability to contract or shorten its size. Extensibility – Ability to stretch Elasticity – Ability to return to its original length after stretching Functions of the muscular system Locomotion Vasoconstriction and vasodilatation- constriction and dilation of blood vessel Walls are the results of smooth muscle contraction. Peristalsis – wavelike motion along the digestive tract is produced by the Smooth muscle. Cardiac motion Posture maintenance- contraction of skeletal muscles maintains body posture and joint stability Heat generation – about 75% of ATP energy used in muscle contraction is released as heat. B: Types of muscles There are three types of muscle depending on their situation Skeletal muscle Smooth (non-striated) muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscles Also called involuntary muscles, they are found in within the walls of organs and tubular structures such as esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder and blood vessels. Smooth muscle cells contains on one nucleus and no striations. Cardiac muscles Also is an involuntary muscle but it is striated in structure and appearance. Also contains one nucleus per cell. Found in the walls of heart only. 3. Skeletal muscles Also known as the voluntary muscles, the stripped or striated muscles. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei located peripherally. Used to move the skeleton, support of the body, maintain body temperature, protecting internal organs, provide joint stability etc. Other classifications. Depending on Striation Striated muscles i.e. cardiac muscles and skeletal muscles Non striated muscles i.e. smooth muscles Depending on control Voluntary muscles i.e. skeletal muscles Involuntary muscles i.e. smooth and cardiac muscles NB: Voluntary muscles are innervated by somatic nerves while involuntary muscles are innervated by Autonomic nerves. Skeletal muscle is divided into… Type I, ”slow twitch” or Red skeletal muscle fibers , is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color, it can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activities, and can contract for long periods of time (eg. Solues). Type II, “fast twitch” have few mitochondria and myoglobin, reduced ability to carry on aerobic respiration and tend to fatigue rapidly. Designed for speed further divided into type IIa, Type IIx and Type IIb. Muscle Fatigue : is the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated stimuli. A fatigued muscle loses its ability to contract. Muscle fatigue is due to accumulation of lactic acid and ATP exhaustion due to repeated stimulation. Defining of terms Striation: only present in skeletal and cardiac muscles. Absent in smooth muscle. In that they contain sarcomere and are packed in highly-regular arrangement of bundles. Striated muscles is often used in short, intense bursts, where as smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contraction. Nucleus: smooth and cardiac muscles are uni-nucleated(one nucleus per cell), skeletal muscle is multinucleated (several nuclei per cell ). Transverse tubule ( T tubule ): well developed in skeletal and cardiac

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Respiratory system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Respiratory system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: What is respiratory system? The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? Respiratory system Nose Paranasal sinuses: Functions of the nose Pharynx Functions of the pharynx Larynx Functions of the larynx What are the structures and functions of lower respiratory system? . The differences btw left and right lungs Bronchial Tree Lungs and pleural membranes Alveoli Respiratory system is responsible with exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in human body What are the functions of respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Respiratory System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define the Respiratory System Explain the Structure and Function of the Upper Respiratory Tract Explain the Structure and Function of the Lower Respiratory Tract What is respiratory system? Definition of Respiratory System The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body The respiratory system may be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Upper Respiratory System Respiratory system The organs of the upper respiratory system are located outside of the thorax and consists of the nose, pharynx and larynx Nose Is made up of bone and cartilage covered with skin, and lined with hairs within the nostrils. The hairs help to block dusts entry The two nasal cavities are within the skull, separated by the nasal septum, which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer The nasal mucosa is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which produce mucus The mucus produced help to trap bacteria and particles from the air There are three shelve like bones called conchae project from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity In the upper nasal cavities are the olfactory receptors, which detect vaporized chemicals that have been inhaled Paranasal sinuses: Are air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones Are lined with ciliated epithelium, and the mucus produced drains into the nasal cavities. The functions of the paranasal sinuses are to lighten the skull and provide more vibrating air for the voice. Paranasal sinuses Functions of the nose Respiration (breathing) The nose humidify, warm, filter and clean the air Reception and elimination of secretions from the nasal mucosa, paranasal sinuses, and nasolacrimal ducts Olfaction (smelling) – is the organ of sense of smell It aids speech- this is enhanced by the presence of paranasal sinuses Pharynx It is a muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and anterior to the cervical vertebrae. It is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity.  It is continuous with lining of the nose and consists of ciliated columnar epithelium and the intermediate layer is fibrous tissue. Oropharynx lies behind the oral cavity.  It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with lining of the mouth and oesophagus. Laryngopharynx also known as the hypopharynx, this is also lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium. Functions of the pharynx Passageway for air and food Warming and humidifying air Protection Taste Facilitates Hearing (through eustachian tube) The pharynx is also important in vocalization and Speech Larynx The larynx houses the vocal folds, and is situated just below the pharynx between the root of the tongue and upper end of the trachea. The larynx consists of cartilages attaches to each other by ligaments and membranes. The framework of the larynx is formed by nine cartilages (e.g. thyroid, epiglottis) connected to one another by muscles, ligaments and membranes. The epiglottisis the uppermost cartilage. During swallowing, the larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis closes over the top to prevent entry of saliva and food to the larynx Functions of the larynx Speaking (speech)  Sound production is primarily done by the focal folds Respiration (is the air passageway between pharynx and the trachea) Swallowing  The epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into the larynx What are the structures and functions of lower respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Lower Respiratory System Respiratory system The organs of the lower respiratory system are located inside of the thorax and consists of the trachea, bronchial tree and lungs Trachea The trachea is about 4 to 5 inches ( about 15cm) long and extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi. The wall of the trachea contains 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage, which keep the trachea open. The gaps in these incomplete cartilage rings are posterior, to permit the expansion of the oesophagus when food is swallowed. The mucosa of the trachea is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells. . The differences btw left and right lungs The differences btw left and right lungs are: 1.Right lung has 3 lobes where as left lung has 2 loves 2.Right lung has two fissures (horizota&oblique fissures) where as left lung has only one oblique fissure Left lung has cardiac notch where as Right lung do not have Bronchial Tree Are the branches of trachea that enters the lungs (primary/principal bronchi) Their structures are like those of trachea, with C-shaped cartilages and ciliated epithelium Within the lungs, the primary bronchus branches to secondary bronchi that forms lobes of each lungs (three in right lung, two in the left lung) The further branching of the bronchial tube is called bronchial tree The smallest branches are called bronchioles(

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Respiratory system disorders CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Respiratory system disorders using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: What are the common disorders/infections of respiratory systems? Respiratory disorders and infections: Upper respiratory tract infections Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world Epiglottitis What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? Bronchiolitis Tuberculosis Vascular disorders which are: Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections in the world Define common disorder of respiratory system What are the common disorders of the lower respiratory system?? Common Disorders of the Respiratory System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define Common Respiratory System Disorder List Common Respiratory System Disorders Explain the Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract Explain the Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract What are the common disorders/infections of respiratory systems? Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Respiratory disorders and infections: A medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, It includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and lung cancer Upper respiratory tract infections Common cold Pharyngitis Epiglottitis Rheumatic fever Diphtheria Lower respiratory tract infections Bronchiolitis (in young children) Pneumonia Pertussis (whooping cough) Tuberculosis Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) Acute bronchitis Acute asthma Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) Emphysema Chronic asthma Vascular disorders which are: Pulmonary oedema Pulmonary emboli What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory System Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world Pharyngitis It is an inflammation of the throat or pharynx. It is often referred to as a sore throat. Acute pharyngitis can result in very large tonsils which cause trouble swallowing and breathing. Some cases are accompanied by a cough or fever. Most acute cases are caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, fungal infections, or irritants such as pollutants or chemical substances. Epiglottitis A very rapidly progressive infection causing inflammation of the epiglottis and tissues around the epiglottis The infection is usually caused by bacteria and is contracted through the respiratory tract Rheumatic fever An inflammatory disease that may develop two to three weeks after bacterial(streptococcal) infection It is common in children Diphtheria It is an acute bacterial disease that usually affects the tonsils, throat, nose or skin. What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory System Bronchiolitis Inflammation of the bronchioles due to infections especially viral More prominent in individuals with asthma history and cigarette smoking Pneumonia Inflammation of lung with accompanying fluid build up Much of pneumonia seen clinically is caused by bacteria (Streptococcus Pneumonia). Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is most common to immune compromised patients Pertussis Pertussis, commonly known as "whooping cough," is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by bacteria Tuberculosis Is caused It can be inactive or active It is most prominent to HIV/AIDS patients and other immune compromised patients. Is more characterised by chronic cough and night sweats Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) Cystic fibrosis, lung cancer and asthma belongs to OPD Both may cause obstruction and inflammation Asthma Periodic episodes of reversible bronchial obstruction in people with hypersensitive airways Histamine and leukotriene released from mast cells due to allergens like dust and cigarette smoke are the main cause Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Is the irreversible progressive obstruction of air flow in lungs Includes: Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis)  Chronic inflammation of mucus membrane  This results in a chronic, deep, productive cough  It is due to long term smoking, certain environmental factors such as textile dust fibers  Sometimes is due to complication of CF and TB Emphysema  Permanent & irreversible destructive disease of alveolar  Is due to any chronic lung condition e.g. pollution Chronic asthma  Irreversible bronchial obstruction Lung cancer Vascular disorders which are: Pulmonary oedema  Fluid collection (oedema) in all lung tissues which affects gas exchange and lung expansion Pulmonary emboli  Clot of foreign matter that occludes artery in pulmonary system impact. Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections in the world Upper respiratory tract infections include pharyngitis and epiglottitis Lower respiratory tract disorders are: Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Pertussis Tuberculosis Key Points Define common disorder of respiratory system Identify common disorders of upper respiratory tract Identify common disorders of lower respiratory tract List organs of lower respiratory system evaluation What are the common disorders of the lower respiratory system?? assignment ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Skull-Structure And Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Skull-Structure And Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic bony function of the the of The Eight bones (i) FRONTAL : The (ii) OCCIPITAL : The (iii) SPHENOID : The (iv) ETHMOID : The (v) PARIETAL : The (vi) TEMPORAL : There are 14 bones in the (i) ZYGOMATIC : The (ii) LACRIMAL : (iii) NASAL : The (iv) INFERIOR (v) PALATINE: The (vi) VOMER: The (vii) MAXILLA: The (viii) MANDIBLE: External Surface of Cranial Base Skull-Structure And Functions CT Internal Surface of Cranial Base The Anterior Cranial Fossa The Middle Cranial Fossa The Posterior Cranial Fossa SCALP Functions of the Skull SKULL-STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS bony that its hape.  Skull is the Framework that gives the head its characteristic shape function of the protect and the tissues of rly the The skull is protective to the soft vital structures/organs of the head, particularly brain. the The Skull consists of Cranium bony box housing the brain) and face. of in cranium the The skull is composed 22 bones, in cranium and 14 in face. The Eight bones (1) Frontal (2) Occipital (3) Sphenoid (4) Ethmoid of the Cranium are :- (5) Two Parietal bones (6) Two Temporal bones (i) FRONTAL : The frontal bone forms the forehead , the anterior (front) part of the cranial vault and the roof of the orbits (eye sockets). Inside the bone, just behind the eyebrows are the frontal sinuses. two air spaces called (ii) OCCIPITAL : The occipital bone forms the posterior (back) part of the floor and vault of the cranium. It is the bone which supports the head upon the spinal column. The spinal cord leaves the cranium through an opening in the occipital bone called the foramen magnum (iii) SPHENOID : The sphenoid bone is the central part of the base of the cranium. It forms part of the orbits, transmits the optic nerve and supports the posterior part of the maxilla.It is bat-shaped bone The sphenoid air sinuses lie in this bone. The pituitary gland lies in a bony socket called the sella turcica, located on the superior aspect of the sphenoid bone. Dental Tip: When a patient is seated in the dental chair, the headrest should support the occipital bone and thereby support the entire head. (iv) ETHMOID : The Ethmoid bone lies between the eyes and extends from the frontal bone to the sphenoid bone. It forms the anterior part of the skull, the medial wall of each orbit, part of the nasal septum and the roof of the nose. It transmits the olfactory passes through cribriform plate Nerve that (v) PARIETAL : The Parietal bones forms large part of the a cranial extend frontal vault and from the bone to the occipital bone. The two bones join at the midline on the top of the cranium and form the sagittal suture. From this suture, these bones extend down and out to about the level of the top of the external ear where they meet the temporal bones. (vi) TEMPORAL : Temporal bones complete the sides and part of the base of the cranium. These bones contain organs of hearing and equilibrium. The external acoustic meatus in the side of each bone forms a passage from the external ear to the middle ear which lies within each bone. There are 14 bones in the (i) Mandible (1) (ii) Maxillae (2) (iii) Zygomatic Bones (2) (iv) Lacrimal Bones (2) (v) Nasal Bones (2) (vi) Inferior conchae (2) (vii) Palatine Bones (2) (viii) Vomer (1) face. (i) ZYGOMATIC : The right and left zygomatic bones form the lower and outer edges of each orbit and that part of each zygomatic arch nearest the eye. The Zygomatic bone and Zygomatic process of the temporal bone form the Zygomatic arch. The anterior edge of the zygomatic bone joins the maxilla. That part of the maxilla which joins the zygomatic bone is called the zygomatic process. (ii) LACRIMAL : The paired (right and left) Lacrimal bones form small parts of the medial walls the orbits. of The lacrimal bones transmits the naso-lacrimal duct from the eye to the nose or nasal fossa. (iii) NASAL : The nasal bones (right and left) are long, thin pieces of bone that form the upper part of the bridge of the nose. The anterior lower part cartilage of the nasal septum is composed of (iv) INFERIOR CONCHAE: The inferior nasal conchae (right and left) are scroll like bones lying horizontally along the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The bony elements of the middle and superior conchae are extensions of the lateral parts of the ethmoid bones. (v) PALATINE: The palatine bones (right and left) join in the midline to form the posterior part of the palate . hard Palatine bones also form part of the floor and lateral walls of the nasal cavity and part of the floor of the orbits. (vi) VOMER: The vomer forms the inferior part of the nasal septum, the vertical partition separating the right and left nasal cavities. (vii) MAXILLA: The right and left maxillary bones forms the upper jaw and palate of the mouth. The two halves are fused form the upper jaw. at the intermaxillary suture to (viii) MANDIBLE: The horse shoe- shaped bone forming the lower jaw, articulating with the skull at the temporomandi – -bular joint. Mandible is the largest, strongest face. and lowest bone in the External Surface of Cranial Base The external aspect of the cranial base or basicranium features The alveolar arch of the maxillae (supporting the maxillary teeth), The palatine processes of the maxillae, The palatine, Sphenoid, Vomer, Temporal Occipital bones. The hard palate (bony palate) is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillae anteriorly and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones posteriorly. Skull-Structure And