NTA Level 4 Semester One

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Respiratory System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Respiratory System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Respiratory System . Respiration – External Respiration Respiration – Internal Respiration Respiration – Cellular Respiration Respiration – Glycolysis Respiration – Cirtric Acid Cycle Respiration – Electron Transfer Chain Respiration – Anaerobic Respiration Description Function The Respiratory System Breathing In (Inhalation) Breathing Out (Exhalation)  Cellular Respiration  Physiological Respiration  External Respiration  Internal Respiration Lung Volumes Lung Capacities RV + ERV). Anatomy and Physiology – Respiratory System The Respiratory system: The respiratory system (called also respiratory apparatus, ventilator system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body's exterior. What is the respiratory system? Your respiratory system is made up of the organs in your body that help you to breathe. Remember, that Respiration = Breathing. The goal of breathing is to deliver oxygen to the body and to take away carbon dioxide. Parts of the respiratory system Lungs The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. In the lungs oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is breathed out. The red blood cells are responsible for picking up the oxygen in the lungs and carrying the oxygen to all the body cells that need it. The red blood cells drop off the oxygen to the body cells, then pick up the carbon dioxide which is a waste gas product produced by our cells. The red blood cells transport the carbon dioxide back to the lungs and we breathe it out when we exhale. Trachea The trachea (TRAY-kee-uh} is sometimes called the windpipe. The trachea filters the air we breathe and branches into the bronchi. Bronchi The bronchi (BRAHN-ky) are two air tubes that branch off of the trachea and carry air directly into the lungs. Diaphragm Breathing starts with a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs called the diaphragm (DY-uh-fram). When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts. When it contracts it flattens out and pulls downward. This movement enlarges the space that the lungs are in. This larger space pulls air into the lungs. When you breathe out, the diaphragm expands reducing the amount of space for the lungs and forcing air out. The diaphragm is the main muscle used in breathing. Respiration is the physiological process supply oxygen to their cells and the cells use that oxygen to produce high energy molecules. Respiration occurs in all types of organisms, including bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and animals. In higher animals, respiration is often separated into three separate components: (a) external respiration, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the environment and the organism; (b) internal respiration, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the internal body fluids, such as blood, and individual cells; and (c) cellular respiration, the biochemical oxidation of glucose and consequent synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) . Respiration – External Respiration External respiration, commonly known as breathing, is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an animal and its environment. Most animals use specialized organs or organ systems, such as lungs, trachea, or gills, for external respiration. In all cases, exchange of gases between the environment and an animal occurs by diffusion through a wet surface on the animal which is permeable to oxy… Respiration – Internal Respiration Internal respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and cells in different tissues of an animal's body. Internal respiration occurs in animals with a circulation system (categories 2, 4, and 5 above). Animals with gills or lungs take up oxygen and transport oxygen-rich blood throughout the body; they transport carbon dioxide-rich blood from the body back into the… Respiration – Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration consists of many separate enzymatic reactions. The entire process can be summarized in the chemical equation: Cellular respiration is divided into three sequential series of reactions: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. In higher organisms (eukaryotes), glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cell, the aqueous region outside the nucleus; … Respiration – Glycolysis Glycolysis can be defined simply as the lysis, or splitting, of sugar. More particularly, it is the controlled breakdown of glucose, a 6-carbon carbohydrate, into pyruvate, a 3-carbon carbohydrate. Organisms frequently store complex carbohydrates, such as glycogen or starch, and break these down into glucose units which can then enter into glycolysis. Two features of glycolysis suggest that it has… Respiration – Cirtric Acid Cycle After pyruvate (a 3-carbon molecule) is synthesized by glycolysis, it moves into the mitochondria and is oxidized to form carbon dioxide (a 1-carbon molecule) and acetyl CoA (a two carbon molecule). Cells can also make acetyl CoA from fats and amino acids and this is how cells often derive energy, in the form of ATP, from molecules other than glucose or complex carbohydrates. After acetyl CoA form… Respiration – Electron Transfer Chain The electron transfer chain is the final series of biochemical reactions in cellular respiration. It consists of a series of organic electron carriers associated with the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Cytochromes are among the most important of these electron carriers. Like hemoglobin, cytochromes are colored proteins which contain iron in a nitrogencontaining heme group. The final electron… Respiration – Anaerobic Respiration The above reactions of cellular respiration are often referred to as aerobic respiration because the final series of reactions, the electron transfer chain, require oxygen as an electron acceptor. When oxygen is absent or in short supply, cells may

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Digestive System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Digestive System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Digestive System Small Intestine Large Intestine How Human Body Metabolism Works Small Intestine/Bowel Hormone Regulators Nerve Regulators Anatomy and Physiology – Digestive System DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestionstarts here as soon as you take the first bite of a meal. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus,stomach, small intestine, large intestine—which includes the rectum—and anus. Food enters the mouth and passes to the anus through the hollow organs of the GI tract. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive. Digestion is important for breaking down food into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth, and cell repair. Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before the blood absorbs them and carries them to cells throughout the body. The digestive tract, also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, starts at the mouth, continues to the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (commonly referred to as the colon) and rectum, and ends at the anus. The entire system — from mouth to anus — is about 30 feet (9 meters) long. The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). In this system, the process of digestion has many stages, the first of which starts in the mouth (oral cavity). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components which can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The secretion of saliva helps to produce a bolus which can be swallowed to pass down the esophagus and into the stomach. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another digestive enzyme called lingual is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the mastication of food by the teeth and also by the muscular actions of peristalsis and segmentation contractions. Gastric juice in the stomach is essential for the continuation of digestion as is the production of mucus in the stomach. Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood, in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion are defecated from the anus via the rectum. There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food. The organs known as the accessory digestive glands are the liver, gall bladder and pancreas. Other components include the mouth, teeth and epiglottis. The largest structure of the digestive system is the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). This starts at the mouth and ends at the anus, covering a distance of about nine (9) metres. The largest part of the GI tract is the colon or large intestine. Water is absorbed here and remaining waste matter is stored prior to defecation. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. A major digestive organ is the stomach. Within its mucosa are millions of embedded gastric glands. Their secretions are vital to the functioning of the organ. There are many specialized cells of the GI tract. These include the various cells of the gastric glands, taste cells, pancreatic duct cells,enterocytes and microfold cells. Mouth The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract and is equipped with several structures that begin the first processes of digestion. These include salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. The mouth consists of two regions, the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks, and the rest is the oral cavity proper. Most of the oral cavity is lined with oral mucosa, a mucous membrane that produces a lubricating mucus, of which only a small amount is needed. Mucous membranes vary in structure in the different regions of the body but they all produce a lubricating mucus, which is either secreted by surface cells or more usually by underlying glands. The mucous membrane in the mouth continues as the thin mucosa which lines the bases of the teeth. The main component of mucus is a glycoprotein called mucin and the type secreted varies according to the region involved. Mucin is viscous, clear, and clinging. Underlying the mucous membrane in the mouth is a thin layer of smooth muscle tissue and the loose connection to the membrane gives it its great elasticity. It covers the cheeks, inner surfaces of the lips, and floor of the mouth. The roof of the mouth is termed the palate and it separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The palate is hard at the front of the mouth since the overlying mucosa is covering a plate of bone; it is softer and more pliable at the

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System Primary Excretory System Organs Accessory Excretory System Organs Common Diseases Affecting Excretory System Organs Gland Function Thyroid (1) & Pineal Gland  Triiodothyronine (T3) Other Hormone Producing Organs Hormone Properties Hormonal Regulation Anatomy and Physiology – Excretory System The Excretory System: The excretory system is the system of an organism's body that performs the function of excretion, the bodily process of discharging wastes. The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis. The excretory system is essential to one‘s health. Its responsibility is to remove waste from the body. The excretory system is made up of numerous organs that work in unison to ensure that waste is effectively removed from your body. Below are the details of the excretory system organs, along with the roles they play in detoxification. Primary Excretory System Organs Kidneys Kidneys are bean-shaped organs of a reddish brown color that are found in the sides of the vertebral column. Once the body has extracted what it needs from food and drink, it sends the wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys filter the wastes, including urea, salt and excess water, which are flushed out of the body as urine. Wastes in the blood come from tissue breakdown, and from food. After the body takes and uses what it needs, it sends the wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, about the size of a fist. Having atleast one kidney is mandatory for living, unless treated immidietally. Because of the enormous amounts of blood passing through the kidney, kidneys sxtract 180 liters of fluid daily. If we extracted all of the fluid as urine, we would lose nutrients and dehydrate, Kidneys are responsible for filtering the filtrate and returning most of the solutes and water to the blood. Skin The skin performs its excretory function via the sweat glands. These glands produce sweat that contains salt, excess oils, water, and other unnecessary substances which are then excreted out of the body through small pores. Sweating also helps to cool the body during evaporation. Your skin has a very important part in the excretory system. It holds moisture into every part of your body. In the excretory system, the skins job is to regulate one's body temperature. The salt in the skin helps in evaporation of the water off of the body, to cool off one who is hot. Sweat is excreted through sweat glands. Sweating helps the body maintain a cool, consistent temperature, which also helps one maintain homeostasis. Lungs The lungs are very important excretory organs as they expel carbon dioxide from the body via exhalation. The lungs use cells known as alveoli to remove the carbon dioxide from our blood. Otherwise, the carbon dioxide would accumulate and have a detrimental effect to our body. Accessory Excretory System Organs Liver Although considered a secondary, or accessary excretory system organ, the liver plays a vital part in keeping the body clean. Harmful poisons and chemicals that are either produced in the body or consumed are broken down and detoxified by the liver. For example, a bi-product of the metabolic process within the body is ammonia and the liver processes this into urea, a less harmful substance which continues to be filtered and excreted as urine. When we eat fatty foods, the liver orders the gall bladder to release bile into the intestines. The bile then puts the waste products into the intestines. Then the intestines absorb the fats into the blood stream. The liver is then given the blood, and removes all waste products from it as it passes through. The liver removes the iron, which involves red blood cell production. Amino acids are then broken down and passed into the kidney. The kidney uses these to carryout their function in the excretory system. The liver then stores the vitamins, and repeats its cycle. Gallbladder Although the gallbladder does not have a highly significant role to play in the excretory system, it does have a function that assists the overall process. Bile, a liquid produced by the liver to break down waste, is first stored in the gallbladder. When needed, it is discharged into the small intestine whose role is to break down fats, ethanol and other acidic wastes. Urinary Bladder The waste fluid that is created in the liver and collected in the kidney is transferred into the urinary bladder where it is temporarily stored until the individual urinates. The urinary bladder provides a short term solution for storing urine in the body until it is ultimately discharged. After the kidneys filter the fluid, the remaining wastes go to your bladder. The organ stores the urine, and keeps storing it until you can feel it. When you can feel it, it means that the bladder has become full, and you must urinate to release the wastes from your body. Ureters The ureters tubes of smooth muscle fiber transfer liquid waste from the kidneys into the urinary bladder. The urine is moved with peristaltic movements which force the urine away from the kidneys. The ureters also have ureterovesical valves which ensure the waste fluid does not travel back into the kidney. Urethra The urethra runs through the penis in males, and serves as a carrier of semen as well as urine for their ultimate discharge out of the body. The urethra tube is shorter in females and is just above the vaginal opening. Large Intestine Food particles are absorbed into the blood stream via the small intestine. The undigested substances are transferred to the large intestine which essentially serves as a storage organ for the excretory products. The descending, ascending and transverse colons also facilitate

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Nervous Tissue Spinal Cord Cerebrospinal Fluid Sense Organs Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System Action Potentials Anatomy and Physiology – Nervous System Nervous systems: The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body‘s electrical wiring. Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and branch out to every other part of the body. Every minute of every day, your nervous system is sending and receiving countless messages about what is happening both inside and around your body. Right now, your nervous system is receiving sensory input from your eyes about the words on the screen, from your ears about the sound of the computer, from your skin about the feel of your clothes, etc. At the same time, your brain is receiving information from sensors that monitor your heartrate, blood pressure, levels of oxygen and the contents of your stomach and intestines. Your brain then interprets all of these signals, which allows for an understanding of the words on the screen, the recognition of the noise as computer noise, and the development of motor responses such as moving your eyeballs, changing positions in your chair, and decreasing or increasing your heartrate and digestion. In short, your nervous system coordinates all the activities of your body. This module will provide a general overview of the nervous system as a whole. A word of caution: A system capable of so many sophisticated and complicated functions has to be extremely complex. One module cannot possibly present all the information about the nervous system, and it will probably take a few trips through the nervous system before the pieces fall into place, so don't despair if you're a bit confused. An Introduction to Nervous Systems presents the principles of neurobiology from an evolutionary perspective—from single–celled organisms to complex invertebrates such as flies—and is ideal for use as a supplemental textbook. Greenspan describes the mechanisms that allow behavior to become ever more sophisticated—from simple avoidance behavior of Paramecium through to the complex cognitive behaviors of the honeybee—and shows how these mechanisms produce the increasing neural complexity found in these organisms. The book ends with a discussion of what is universal about nervous systems and what may be required, neurobiologically, to be human. This novel and highly readable presentation of fundamental principles of neurobiology is designed to be accessible to undergraduate and graduate students not already steeped in the subject. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems. The Central nervous system. The central nervous system is divided into two major parts: the brain and the spinal cord. Thenervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central systemis the primary control center for the body and is composed of the brain and spinal cord. he nervous system has three main functions: gathering sensory input, integrating data, and forming motor output. Neurons sense external stimuli through receptors in the body, providing the first major function of the nervous system—gathering sensory input. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons. This system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all parts of the body. The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the external environment. The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems. In vertebrates the system has two main divisions, the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Linked to these are the cranial, spinal, and autonomic nerves, which, with their branches, constitute the peripheral nervous system. The brain might be compared to a computer and its memory banks, the spinal cord to the conducting cable for the computer's input and output, and the nerves to a circuit supplying input information to the cable and transmitting the output to muscles and organs. The nervous system is built up of nerve cells, called neurons, which are supported and protected by other cells. Of the 200 billion or so neurons making up the human nervous system, approximately half are found in the brain. From the cell body of a typical neuron extend one or more outgrowths (dendrites), threadlike structures that divide and subdivide into ever smaller branches. Another, usually longer structure called the axon also stretches from the cell body. It sometimes branches along its length but always branches at its microscopic tip. When the cell body of a neuron is chemically stimulated, it generates an impulse that passes from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of another; the junction between axon and dendrite is called a synapse. Such impulses carry information throughout the nervous system. Electrical impulses may pass directly from axon to axon, from axon to dendrite, or from dendrite to dendrite. So-called white matter in the central nervous system consists primarily of axons coated with light-colored myelin produced by certain neuroglial cells. Nerve cell bodies that are not coated with white matter are known as gray matter. Nonmyelinated

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Anatomy and Physiology – Sensory Physiology Sensory Physiology All sensory receptors can be classified by their structure and by the type of stimulus that they detect. Structurally, there are 3 classes of sensory receptors: free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, and specialized cells. Free nerve endings are simply free dendrites at the end of a neuron that extend into a tissue. Pain, heat, and cold are all sensed through free nerve endings. An encapsulated nerve ending is a free nerve ending wrapped in a round capsule of connective tissue. When the capsule is deformed by touch or pressure, the neuron is stimulated to send signals to the CNS. Specialized cells detect stimuli from the 5 special senses: vision, hearing, balance, smell, and taste. Each of the special senses has its own unique sensory cells—such as rods and cones in the retina to detect light for the sense of vision. Functionally, there are 6 major classes of receptors: mechanoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to mechanical stimuli like touch, pressure, vibration, and blood pressure. Nociceptors. Nociceptors respond to stimuli such as extreme heat, cold, or tissue damage by sending pain signals to the CNS. Photoreceptors. Photoreceptors in the retina detect light to provide the sense of vision. Chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors detect chemicals in the bloodstream and provide the senses of taste and smell. Osmoreceptors. Osmoreceptors monitor the osmolarity of the blood to determine the body's hydration levels. Thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors detect temperatures inside the body and in its surroundings. The Nervous System and Reflexes In general, nerve function is dependent on both sensory and motor fibers, sensory stimulation evoking motor response. Even the autonomic system is activated by sensory impulses from receptors in the organ or muscle. Where especially sensitive areas or powerful stimuli are concerned, it is not always necessary for a sensory impulse to reach the brain in order to trigger motor response. A sensory neuron may link directly to a motor neuron at a synapse in the spinal cord, forming a reflex arc that performs automatically. Thus, tapping the tendon below the kneecap causes the leg to jerk involuntarily because the impulse provoked by the tap, after traveling to the spinal cord, travels directly back to the leg muscle. Such a response is called an involuntary reflex action. Commonly, the reflex arc includes one or more connector neurons that exert a modulating effect, allowing varying degrees of response, e.g., according to whether the stimulation is strong, weak, or prolonged. Reflex arcs are often linked with other arcs by nerve fibers in the spinal cord. Consequently, a number of reflex muscle responses may be triggered simultaneously, as when a person shudders and jerks away from the touch of an insect. Links between the reflex arcs and higher centers enable the brain to identify a sensory stimulus, such as pain; to note the reflex response, such as withdrawal; and to inhibit that response, as when the arm is held steady against the prick of a hypodermic needle. Reflex patterns are inherited rather than learned, having evolved as involuntary survival mechanisms. But voluntary actions initiated in the brain may become reflex actions through continued association of a particular stimulus with a certain result. In such cases, an alteration of impulse routes occurs that permits responses without mediation by higher nerve centers. Such responses are called conditioned reflexes, the most famous example being one of the experiments Ivan Pavlov performed with dogs. After the dogs had learned to associate the provision of food with the sound of a bell, they salivated at the sound of the bell even when food was not offered. Habit formation and much of learning are dependent on conditioned reflexes. To illustrate, the brain of a student typist must coordinate sensory impulses from both the eyes and the muscles in order to direct the fingers to particular keys. After enough repetition the fingers automatically find and strike the proper keys even if the eyes are closed. The student has "learned" to type; that is, typing has become a conditioned reflex. Disorders of the Nervous System A number of diseases can significantly affect the proper functioning of the nervous system. Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, myasthenia gravis, andamyotrophic lateral sclerosis (commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease) are some of the more severe diseases affecting the nervous system. Strokes, which are related to circulatory disorders, also may have permanent effects on the nervous system. Certain plant derivatives, such as belladonna, cocaine, and caffeine, have a variety of stimulatory, inhibitory, and hallucinatory effects on the nervous system. Sense organs Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) is credited with the traditional classification of the five sense organs: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. As far back as the 1760's, the famous philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed that our knowledge of the outside world depends on our modes of perception. In order to define what is "extrasensory" we need to define what is "sensory". Each of the 5 senses consists of organs with specialized cellular structures that have receptors for specific stimuli. These cells have links to the nervous system and thus to the brain. Sensing is done at primitive levels in the cells and integrated into sensations in the nervous system. Sight is probably the most developed sense in humans, followed closely by hearing. An organ of the body which responds to external stimuli by conveying impulses to the sensory nervous system. The sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous system. Each sense organ contains different receptors. General receptors are found throughout the body because they are

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function Motor Neuron—Synaptic Cleft—Skeletal Muscle Cell Neuromuscular Junction Disorders ‗ Aerobic Power Anaerobic Power Interval Training The Pulmonary Apparatus The Circulatory System EXCLUSION CRITERIA FOR POTENTIALLY HARMFUL Acquired Disorders Respiratory Considerations Cardiovascular Considerations Heart Disorders Blood Pressure Renal Disorders Heart Rate Stroke Volume Cardiac Output Blood Flow Aerobic Training Anaerobic Training Strength/Endurance Training Power Training Flexibility Training Neuromuscular Coordination Body Composition General Training Principles Anatomy and Physiology – Neuromuscular Function What Is Neuromuscular Junction? A motor neuron is responsible for causing a skeletal muscle to contract, by stimulating it. The gap or space present between this motor neuron and the skeletal muscle cell is called as a synapse. This synapse, specifically between the skeletal muscle cell and motor neuron is called neuromuscular junction or myoneural. Myo means Muscle and Neural means Nerves. When an impulse travels between this space, muscle contraction happens. There are around 100-500 trillion such connections in the human brain, between two nerves or nerves and glands. In this article we will discuss only the neuromuscular junction. Structure of Neuromuscular Junction As we have read, a neuromuscular junction consists of a neuron and a skeletal muscle cell. The neuron in the combination is referred to as spinal motor neuron. The motor neurons, who originate from the spinal cord, innervate the skeletal muscle fibers. The innervations happens by very fine processes of the axon. The synapses are present along these processes and are also known as motor endplate, because of its specific structure. The neuromuscular junction synapse has 3 characteristic features: There are two membranes called the pre and post synaptic membranes. There exists a distinct space between these membranes and is known as Synaptic Cleft. High density of small spherical vesicles is present, which contain neurotransmitter substances. A thickened post synaptic membrane is present, which has high density of receptors that are responsible for binding the chemical substances which transmit the signal from the pre synaptic neuron. Functions of Neuromuscular Junction Before going in detail, let us remember the broad action of this junction. It is to act like a bridge between a neuron and muscle cell to transmit the signals. Motor Neuron—Synaptic Cleft—Skeletal Muscle Cell Calcium makes an entry in the excited motor neuron, which in turn causes exocytosis of the neurotransmitter. Which means the neurotransmitter gets transported to the only place available – the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter secreted by the somatic motor neurons. There are receptors of acetylcholine present in the skeletal muscle cells. So this secreted acetylcholine then passes the cleft by diffusion and bind with the receptors. They are like puzzle pieces which fit or key which opens the door. This process opens an ion channel through which sodium ions pass to the muscle cells. At that time potassium ions diffuse out of muscle cells. However, the amount of Sodium ions entering is higher than the number of potassium ions leaving. Once the sodium ion reaches the muscle cell, it depolarizes, because it is a positive ion. This causes the skeletal muscle cell membrane to get excited and contract. This is referred to as Action Potential being triggered. The acetylcholine does not remain in the synaptic cleft of the neuromuscular junction forever. This is to ensure that it does not cause over contraction of the muscle or keep the muscle contracted for longer than required. An enzyme called as Acetyl cholinesterase is responsible in acting as a catalyst in breaking down the acetylcholine present in the synaptic cleft. It gives rise to acetate and choline, which are then transported back to the synaptic cleft, where they are resynthesized. This is called as Active Reuptake. Neuromuscular Junction Disorders ‗ Some of the disorders affecting the neuromuscular junction are Myasthenia Gravis, Botulism, Eaton-Lambert syndrome etc. The neuromuscular junction can also malfunction when exposed to certain antibiotics, organophosphates which are type of insecticides, curare which is a toxin derived from plants and gases used in chemical warfare. Some of these things work by preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine after the transmission of the nerve impulse. While some of the disorders cause over activity of the muscles as described below: person syndrome: Antibodies attack nerve cells – responsible for muscle regulation – present in the brain and spinal cord and cause them to be continuously stimulated. Due to this they become stiff. Isaacs’s syndrome: In this the nerves keep sending impulses to the muscles which causes them to be over stimulated and ultimately stiffen. They also tend to twitch, due to which they find exercising and normal activities difficult to perform. Fuel for muscular activity. Your body is your vehicle, so you have to keep your engine — your heart — running when you work out. That means fueling up your tank with the right foods and your radiator with the right fluids, using with right amounts at the right times. The American College of Sports Medicine says, ―Adequate food and fluid should be consumed before, during, and after exercise to help maintain blood glucose concentration during exercise, maximize exercise performance, and improve recovery time. Athletes should be well hydrated before exercise and drink enough fluid during and after exercise to balance fluid losses.‖ Not fueling up before you work out is like ―driving a car on empty,‖ said Platt, an American Heart Association volunteer. You also won‘t have enough energy to maximize your workout and you limit your ability to burn calories. Ideally, fuel up two hours before you exercise by: Hydrating with water. Eating healthy carbohydrates such as whole-grain cereals (with lowfat or skim milk), whole-wheat toast (without the fatty cream cheese), low-fat or fat-free yogurt, whole grain pasta, brown rice, fruits and vegetables. Avoiding saturated

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility FLEXIBILITY CARDIAC EFFECTS CIRCULATORY EFFECTS PULMONARY EFFECTS The Warm Up Neck Rotation Shoulder Rotation Rock Squat Hamstrings Stretch Arms Back (Chest/Shoulder Stretch) Modified Hurdle (Piriformis Stretch) Lunge (Hip Flexor Stretch) Quadriceps Stretch Calf Stretch What Are Calories? Anatomy and Physiology – Strength, Endurance and Flexibility STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE Appropriate exercise increases the strength and endurance of skeletal muscles. Increases in muscular strength are associated with increases in muscle mass; increases in muscular endurance are associated with improved blood flow to the working muscles. These results are achieved by resistance training. Any exercise that causes the muscle to increase its tension, whether or not the muscle actually shortens during contraction, provides an appropriate strengthtraining stimulus. Resistance can be applied to a muscle group by attempting to move an immovable object, by working one muscle group against another, by lifting heavy weights, or by using special strength-training machines and devices. There is a wide selection of strength-training equipment that, when used properly, can increase muscular strength and endurance. It is possible that some of the equipment is more efficient in developing maximal performance, which is important for competitive athletes. But for the average individual, who is training to maintain an acceptable level of muscular fitness, any one device or program is probably about as good as another. Strength and endurance training is done by performing several ―reps‖ (repetitions) of a given exercise, then moving on to another exercise for a different muscle group. Experts generally recommend that exercisers select a resistance that is approximately 65 percent of the maximum they can lift for that particular exercise. This load should allow the completion of 12 reps of that exercise in 24 to 30 seconds. Each group of eight to 12 reps is called a set, and two or three sets of a given exercise are recommended for each training session. The average individual should perform strength and endurance training two to three days per week. Super circuit weight training refers to a program in which running or other aerobic exercises are performed between sets; this training produces aerobic as well as strength benefits. FLEXIBILITY Muscles and tendons can be stretched to improve flexibility (the range of motion at a joint). Flexibility training follows a few, simple principles. To improve range of motion, the muscles and other connective tissue around a joint must be stretched. The preferred stretching technique is a slow increase in the range of motion. The exerciser should feel the muscle stretch, but not to the point of pain. The stretch should be performed gradually, and the body should be held for 10 to 20 seconds in the stretched position and then gradually returned to a relaxed posture. By stretching each muscle group in this fashion as a part of the strengthening and conditioning program, the participant will maintain good flexibility. Bouncing or explosive stretching movements should be avoided, as they can result in muscle or tendon tears. Cardio respiratory effects CARDIAC EFFECTS Regular aerobic exercise training has a direct effect on the heart muscle. The muscle mass of the left ventricle, which is the pumping chamber that circulates blood throughout the body, increases with exercise training. This change means that the heart can pump more blood with each beat. In short, the heart becomes a bigger, stronger, and more efficient pump capable of doing more work with less effort. CIRCULATORY EFFECTS Regular exercise also produces changes in the circulation. As previously discussed, muscle endurance training serves to increase blood flow to the working muscles. This increased blood flow means that more oxygen and fuel can be delivered to the muscle cells. The number of red blood cells, which carry oxygen in the blood, also increases with training, as does blood volume. Taken together, these changes indicate a greater capacity to transport oxygen to the working muscles. PULMONARY EFFECTS The basic function of the lungs is to facilitate the transfer (1) of oxygen from the atmosphere into the blood and (2) of carbon dioxide from the blood into the atmosphere. To accomplish this, air must pass into and out of the lungs, and the respiratory gases must diffuse through the lungs into the circulation and vice versa. Although exercise has not been shown to affect this diffusing ability, exercise training does strengthen the muscles of respiration. This means that a trained individual can move more air through the lungs per time unit, and forced vital capacity (i.e., the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a full inspiration) may be increased. Warming up, conditioning and fatigue. A warm-up is an activity or activities, which prepare you both mentally and physically for further more intense activity or training. It should be continuous movement utilizing a variety of movements, which will result in increased heart rate, core temperature, and dynamic range of motion. In a warm-up you basically want to get the entire body warm, loose, and a little sweat on the forehead. You should now be ready mentally and physically to begin an intense training session. The warm-up should increase your productivity in the work out and also reduce your risk of injury. Purpose: Body movements, increase blood flow to muscles, joints, raise core temperature, active flexibility, teaching/learning of body awareness and control. The warm up activities are a crucial part of any exercise regime or sports training. The importance of a structured warm up routine should not be under estimated when it comes to the prevention of sports injury. The Warm Up An effective warm up has a number of very important key elements. These elements, or parts, should all be working together to minimize the