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NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Procedures for Conducting Operational Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 7 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 7: Procedures for Conducting Operational Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Outline the major characteristics of research • Identify essential guidelines in conducting operational research • Describe procedural steps for conducting operational research Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1. 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Major characteristics of research 2. 15 minutes Brain storming Presentation Essential guidelines for conducting operational 3. 30 minutes Buzzing research 60 minutes Presentation Procedural steps for conducting operational research 4. Group discussion 5. 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6. 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 48 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Major Characteristics of Research (15 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) ASK students to brainstorm on the following question for 3minutes  What are the major characteristics of operational research? ALLOW few to respond WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Operational research encompasses a wide range of problem-solving techniques and methods applied in the pursuit of improved decision-making and efficiency. Therefore, it must have certain characteristics as follows: • It demands a clear statement of the problem. • It requires clear objectives and a plan (it is not aimlessly looking for something in the hopes that you will come across a solution). • It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings. • New data should be systematically collected and analyzed to answer the original research objectives. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 49 STEP 3: Essential Guidelines for Conducting Operational Research (30 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What are the essential guidelines for conducting operational research? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their responses on the flip chart/whiteboard CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below Operational research is undertaken primarily to provide information to support decision- making that can improve the functioning of the health system. Some essential guidelines for success include: • It should focus on priority problems in health care. • It should be action-oriented, i.e., aimed at developing solutions. • An integrated multi-disciplinary approach is required, i.e., research approaches from many disciplines are needed since health is affected by the broader context of socio- economic development. • The research should be participatory in nature, involving all parties concerned (from policymakers to community members) in all stages of the proposal. • Research must be timely. Otherwise, it loses its purpose. • Emphasis should be placed on comparatively simple, short-term research designs which are likely to yield practical results relatively quickly. • It should be cost-effective operational research should focus, to a large extent, on low- cost studies that can be undertaken by management and service personnel in the course of daily activities. • Results should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-makers and the community. • Evaluation of the research undertaken should concentrate on its ability to influence policy, improve services and ultimately lead to better health ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 50 STEP 4: Procedural Steps for Conducting Operational Research (60 minutes) Activity: Small Group Discussion (20 minutes) DIVIDE students into small manageable groups ASK students to discuss on the following question • ‘What steps to follow in conducting operational research? ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents on the flow chart below • Research Proposal: A document written by a scientist that describes in detail the program for a proposed scientific investigation. • It can be envisaged as the process (step by step guidelines) of planning and giving structure to the prospective research, with the fina1 aim of increasing the validity of the research. • It is a written submission to spell out the nature of the design and the means and strategies that are going to be used in a logic format. • Purpose of Research Proposal o Provides a defined topic scope for researching. o Helps you to understand further how to address the technical problems of writing research. There are several steps to follow in chronological order in writing a research proposal: • Step 1; Select, analyze and state the research problem This step involves o identification of the problem o Problem prioritization o Problem analysis o Stating the problem – ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 51 • Step 2: Review literature and other available information • Step 3; Formulate Objectives • Step 4; Develop research methodology o variables o types of study o data collection techniques o sampling o plan for data collection o plan for data processing and analysis o ethical consideration o pretest/pilot study • Step 5: Prepare the work plan • Step 6: Identification of resources required and preparation of a budget • Step 7: Plan for project administration and utilization of results • Step 8 Collect data in the field (implement the proposal) • Step 9: Analyze collected data and interpret results • Step 10: Prepare and present a final report of the research

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Classification of Research Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 6 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 6: Classification of Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites  None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:  Identify classes of research  Describe study designs for classes of research identified  Explain the uses and limitations of each study design  Identify the most appropriate study design for the research proposal you are developing Resources Needed  Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape  Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers  Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Classes of research 2 15 minutes Brainstorming Presentation Study designs 3 40 minutes Buzzing 3 30 minutes Presentation Uses and Limitations of each Study design Buzzing 4 20 minutes Presentation Appropriate Study design for the Research Proposal 5 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 37 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1 Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes): READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Study Types Most Used in Research (35 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following questions: • What are the research classifications most used in research? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below Research can be classified into several categories according to the nature and purpose of the study and other attributes. • Types of Research Methods According to the Purpose of the Study o Applied research which is also referred to as an action research, o Basic research also called fundamental or pure research. • Types of Research Methods According to Nature of the Study Descriptive, analytical and Experimental studies or interventional studies o Descriptive research usually involves surveys and studies that aim to identify the facts. o In other words, it deals with the ―description of the state of affairs as it is at present‖, and there is no control over variables in descriptive research. o Observational or Analytical research uses facts or information already available and analyze these in order to make a critical evaluation of the material‖. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 38 o Experimental or interventional studies are ones where researchers introduce an intervention and study the effects. Experimental studies are usually randomized, meaning the subjects are grouped by chance. Randomized controlled trial (RCT): Eligible people are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups. • Types of Research according to Research Design o Two groups; Exploratory and Conclusive. o Exploratory studies only aim to explore the research area and they do not attempt to offer final and conclusive answers to research questions. o Conclusive studies, on the contrary, aim to provide final and conclusive answers to research questions. o Quantitative or qualitative STEP 3: Uses and Limitations of Each Study Type (40 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to, select one study type then pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What are the uses of the selected study type? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 39 • Basic (fundamental/pure) research Uses o Basic research aims to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena. o Applied research, in turn, uses scientific theories to develop technology or techniques to intervene and alter natural or other phenomena. o Though often driven by curiosity, basic research fuels applied science's innovations. Limitations o Does not usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical level. o Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in specific research area • Applied (operational) research Uses o Operations research is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions. o It uses scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a practical or useful result o Uses knowledge and skills in creative ways to solve complex problems and have an impact on critical decisions Limitations o Costly: Operation Research (OR) is very costly. o Not realistic: Operation Research experts make very complex models for solving problems. These models may not be realistic o Complex: Operation Research is a complex concept • Quantitative research Uses o Provides statistical, mathematical, or numerical results o Tends to analyze phenomena in terms of trends and frequencies o Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. o It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. o Quantitative research is inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a theory, measured with numbers, and analyzed using statistical techniques. o The goal of quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive generalizations of a theory hold true. Limitations o Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher o More easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies. o Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 40 • Qualitative research Uses o Can provide full picture of answers and reasons behind them(ethnographic) o Can be used to inform answers to social issues o Find ways to improve qualitative things like customers satisfaction, health professional's opinions o It aims to develop concepts that aid

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Basic Concept of Research Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 5 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 5: Basic Concept of Research Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define research • Outline the importance of research in pharmaceutical services • Explain the application of research concepts in pharmaceutical services Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1. 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 2. 20 minutes Presentation Brainstorming Definition of Research Presentation Importance of Research in Pharmaceutical 3. 35 minutes Buzzing Services Presentation 4. Application of Research Concepts in 50 minutes Small group discussion Pharmaceutical Services 5. 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6. 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 32 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definitions of Research (20 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: • What is research? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Research: o A careful and systematic process of inquiry to find answers to problem of interest. o It is a systematic process of collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a research question or solve a problem o Includes use of facts, use of theories, data analysis, sampling, doing an experiment o To do research is to investigate the problem systematically and thoroughly to Solve problem of interest. o Human instinct to inquiry, to know, to know more, to explore, to find out, to explain, to overcome a problem o An on-going process o How we live today is partly due to research ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 33 STEP 3: Importance of research in Pharmaceutical Services (35 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What is the importance of research in pharmaceutical services? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Pharmaceutical personnel in all settings can engage more fully in research in order to o Improve patient outcomes and further develop the profession. o Inform workforce development, education, practice and commissioning decisions. o Clinical advances resulting from research help improve the care of patients o Research findings assist in developing new roles and practice models for clinical pharmacists. o Its aim is to support evidence-based policy and practice decisions where pharmacists are employed or medicines are prescribed or used STEP 4: Application of Research Concepts in Pharmaceutical Services (50 minutes) Activity: Small group discussion (30 minutes) DIVIDE students in small manageable groups of 5-6 students ASK them to discuss on how they can apply research in pharmaceutical services (15 minutes) ALLOW one group to present and let other groups to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below  Application of Research Concepts in Pharmaceutical services o Focuses on examining how and why people access pharmacy services, how much care costs, and what happens to patients as a result of this care. ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 34 o Health policy and governance o Quality assurance and safety o Medicine access and rational use o Quality, safety & standards (e.g. vaccines and biological) o Strengthening the services, they provide through:  Building the evidence base for developing and commissioning new services  Improving patient care  Contributing to the knowledge base within health service research more widely  Gaining both professionally and personally in the process STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Research is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data in order to answer a certain question or solve a problem • Areas in pharmaceutical services that need research: may include health policy and governance, quality assurance and safety, rational use of drugs STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What is research? • What is the application of research in pharmaceutical services? ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 35 References Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., Williams, T.A., Freeman, J. & Shoesmith, E. (2007). Basic Statistics and epidemiology (2001). A practical guide, Radcliffe Medical Press, United Kingdom Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology, World Health Organization, Geneva Kazaura, M. R., Makwaya, C. K., Masanja, C. M. and Mpembeni, R.C. (1997). Lecture notesin Biostatistics, manual of biostatistics: Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences, Dar es Salaam Polit, D. F and Beck, C. T (2004) Nursing Research – Principles and Methods, (7th Ed): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia Rao, J. S., & Richard, J. (2002). An introduction to biostatistics-a manual for students in helthsciences (3rd. Ed): New Delhi, India: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd Rosner B (2010): Fundamental of Biostatistics (7th Ed.): Boston, USA: Cengage Learning ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 36 ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Operational Research topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Establishing Trends in Health Care Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 4 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 4: Establishing Trends in Health Care Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • List tables and graphs used to determine trend • Generate tables and graphs • Interpret tables and graphs Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks Presentation Tables and Graph used to Determine Trend 2 15 minutes Buzzing 60 minutes Presentation Generation of Tables and Graphs 3 Small group discussion 4 30 minutes Presentation Interpretation of Tables and Graphs 5 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 23 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Tables and Graph Used to Determine Trend (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • Which tables and Graphs are used to determine Trend? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Tables and Graphs used to determine trend are: o Line graphs o Bar graph o Histogram o Frequency polygon o Frequency curve o Cumulative frequency STEP 3: Generation of Tables and Graphs (55 minutes) Activity: Small group (15 minutes) DIVIDE students into groups of 5-6 people ASK students in their small groups to answer the following questions How do you generate tables and graphs to determine Trends? ALLOW one group to present and let other groups to add on points not mentioned. WRITE their response on the flip chart/board ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 24 CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the following content • Table A table is a drawing having columns and rows that facilitate representation of large amount of data in an attractive easy to read and organized manner. Steps to make a table o Name your table – write a title of the table at the top of the paper o Decide how many rows and columns you need o Insert/draw a table using the computer o Label your columns and rows o Record the data you have in the columns and rows o When making cross-tabulations, check that the column and row counts correspond to the frequency counts for each variable. o Also check that the grand total in the table corresponds to the number of subjects in the sample. Example of a table Table 1.: Type of health worker by residence Residence Type of Health Worker Total Doctors Pharmacists Rural 10 (16%) 69 (38%) 79 (33%) Urban 51 (84%) 113 (62%) 164 (67%) Total 61 (100%) 182 (100%) 243 (100%) • Line graph o A line graph is a diagram that shows a line joining several points, or a line that shows the relationship between the points. o A line graph can be taken as xy plane, where there will be an independent variable and a dependent variable o It specifies how the two variables are related to each other and vary with respect to one another. o Mostly, the independent variable is taken on the x-axis while the dependent variable on the y-axis. • Steps to Make a Line Graph: o Step 1: Use the data from the table to choose an appropriate scale The table given below shows the weights of a child in months SNo. Age in Months Weight (Kg) A. 1 38 B. 3 41 C. 5 43 D. 7 49 E. 9 51 F. 11 54 ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 25 o Step 2: Draw and label the scale on the vertical and horizontal axis o Step 3: List the each item and locate the points on the graph o Step 4: Connect the points with line segments • You can see a line plotted through two points say A and B on the following graph • The data given on table above has been summarized in the form of a line graph as follows: Line graph have one or more lines plotted on the graph. They are very useful for showing change over time • Bar Graph o Bar graph is drawn on an x-y graph and it has labeled horizontal or vertical bars that show different values. • The size, length and color of the bars represent different values. • Bar graph is very useful for non-continuous data and it helps in comparing or contrasting the size of the different categories of the data provided • Let‘s take an example of the bar diagram and compare the pass percentage of a school 90%, 100% and 60% during the year 2000, 2001 and 2002 respectively • Frequency Polygon ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 26 o The frequency polygon has most of the properties of a histogram, with an extra feature o Here the mid-point of each class of the x-axis is marked o Then the midpoints and the frequencies are taken as the plotting point o These points are connected using line segments o We also complete the graph, that is, it's closed by joining to the x-axis. o Frequency polygon gives a less accurate representation of the distribution, than a histogram, as it represents the frequency

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Data Presentation Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 3 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 3: Data Presentation Total Session Time: 120 minutes+ 120 minutes Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define data presentation • Describe methods of data presentation • Explain the use of data presentation methods Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 15 minutes Brainstorming 2 Definition of Data Presentation Presentation 40 minutes 3 Presentation Methods of Data Presentation 40 minutes Presentation 4 Use of Data Presentation Methods Buzzing 5 10 minutes Presentation Key Points 6 10 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 13 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Data Presentation (15 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) Ask students to pair up and brainstorm on the following question: • What is data presentation? ALLOW few students to respond? WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below • Data presentation refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so that the logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements STEP 3: Methods of Data Presentation (40 minutes) • Data may be presented in three methods, i.e. textual, tabular or graphical o Textual – presentation of data in words (text) o Tabular – a systematic organization of data into columns and rows (a table) o Graphical – presentation of data using graphs • Data can be presented as: o frequency distributions o percentages o proportions o ratios and rates o figures (graph, tables, charts o measures of central tendency (mean, mode and median) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 14 • Frequency distribution o Frequency distribution is description of data presented in tabular form so that data will be more manageable. o It gives frequency in each value that appears in data o counts number of responses in category e.g. Frequency of categorical data Frequency distribution of course students according to sex Sex of course students Number of course students Male 34 Female 27 Total 61 • Frequency distribution of numerical data o Frequency distribution of numerical data is similar to that of categorical data except here data have to be grouped in categories o Example Weights (in kg) of 17 pharmaceutical students on enrolment at KCMC School of Pharmacy (KSP) (45,43,45,47,54,53,62,38,54,34,45,53,56,42,51, 62,61) o Procedures  Select group for grouping these data (selected Groups (31-40; 41-50; 51-60; 61- 70)  Count number of measurement (wt. of pharmaceutical students) in each group: 31-40 II (34, 38) 41-50 IIIIII (42, 43, 45, 45, 45, 47) 51-60 IIIIII (51, 53, 53, 54, 54, 56) 61-70 III (61, 62, 62)  Add up and check the total • Rules for grouping data o Groups must not overlap, to avoid confusion o There must be continuity from one group to the other (no gaps) o Groups must range from the lowest to the highest measurements o Groups should normally be of equal width • Percentages ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 15 o Is number of units in the sample with a certain characteristics divided by total of units in the sample multiplied by 100 o May also be called Relative frequencies o Standardizes the data and make it easier to compare with similar data obtained in another sample of different size or origin o E.g. weight of 17 pharmaceutical students at KCMC school of Pharmacy on enrolment Weight Number of Relative frequency(percent) (Kg) pharmaceutical students 31-40 12 26.7 41-50 17 37.8 51-60 11 24.4 61-70 5 11.1 Total 45 100 • For calculating percentage Remember: o Don‘t include missing numbers and not applicable in calculation. o Don‘t know' is special category that should not counted as missing data. o Should not be used if total is less than 30, as one unit makes a big difference in terms of percentage • Proportions o Sometimes relative frequency are expressed in proportion instead of percentages o Definition: proportion is numerical expression that compares one party of study units to the whole. o Can be expressed in fraction or decimal Numerator is part of denominator e.g. Calculate proportion of modules studied in first semester • Ratio o Is numerical expression that indicates relationship in quantity or amount or size between two or more parts. Numerator is not part of denominator e.g. Ratio of module studied in first semester to module to be studied in second semester • Rates o Is quantity or amount or degree of event or disease measured over specified period. e.g. Birth rate = number of live birth per 1000 population over period of one year • Figures o Figures make the descriptive data more readable when you have many tables For categorical data use ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 16 o Bar charts o Pie charts • For numerical data use o Histograms o Line graphs o Scatter diagrams o Maps • Bar charts o Is simplest and most effective means of illustrating qualitative data o Bars can either be horizontal or vertical o The bars are not connected e.g.57 Adolescents from Kaloleni streets in Arusha were asked the following question: How often have you used cannabis for the past one year? This was closed question with the following possible answers o Frequently (more than 5 times),

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Basic Biostatistics Data Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 2 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 2: Basic Biostatistics Data Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define data • Mention characteristics of data • Explain sources of data • Describe types of data • Explain the quality of data Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 10 minutes Brainstorm 2 Definition of Data Presentation 25 minutes 3 Presentation Characteristic of Data 25 minutes Buzzing 4 Presentation Sources of Data 15 minutes Buzzing 5 Types of Data Presentation 30 minutes Presentation 6 The Quality of Data 7 05 minutes Presentation Key Points 8 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 7 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Data (10 minutes) Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) Ask students to pair and brainstorm on the following question: • What is Data? ALLOWS few students to respond WRITE their responses on the flipchart or board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Data is defined as the raw information from which statistics are created o Put in the reverse, statistics provide an interpretation and summary of data. • When it means statistical data, it refers to numerical descriptions of things. STEP 3: Characteristic of Data (25 minutes) • The following are characteristics of statistical data: o They must be in aggregates o They must be affected to a marked extent by a multiplicity of causes. o They must be enumerated or estimated according to a reasonable standard of accuracy o They must have been collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined purpose. o They must be placed in relation to each other. That is, they must be comparable ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 8 STEP 4: Sources of Data (25 minutes) • Sources of data include: o Vital events register This includes data on live-births, deaths, marriages and migration. This register should ideally provide a comprehensive coverage of the whole district/country. It is usually used to calculate demographic indicators such as infant and under-five mortality rate o National Population Census This is an important source of demographic, social and economic data. These data form the denominator in the calculation of many quantifiable health indicators. National population census provides total population and age structure, which is not easy to obtain through any other method. o Routine data collection from health facilities Routine data collection from health facilities is a good source of information for disease, specifically morbidity and mortality data. This is because the information is obtained from active cases and the data are collected by a professional, qualified person. o Sentinel surveillance This is a system in which data is collected routinely from selected health facilities or communities. It is very useful in obtaining specific morbidity data in a more detailed form, particularly endemic diseases and those under special control programmes, with an improved accuracy compared with routine data collection system o Surveys A survey is very useful for evaluation because it can be done in a shorter time and obtains a lot of detailed representative data. Surveys have the advantage of providing timely and relevant information. Often surveys are done in the community, and hence become more representative of the real situation than data obtained from health facilities e.g. Demographic and health survey o Reports and documents A lot of reports and documents with useful information are produced daily in the ministries of health, in training and research institutions. o Scientific research Research findings are usually of very high quality and can be useful in medium and long term planning of health services. Comparatively, researches are more focused on the subject matter than other sources of information o External sources o Data are collected by individual research workers or by other organizations through sample surveys or experiments, keeping in view the objectives of the study in your environment ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 9 STEP 5: Types of Data (15 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What are the types of statistics commonly used to support decision making in provision of pharmaceutical services? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • They are two types of statistical data: o Primary Data  Primary data means the raw data (data without fabrication or not tailored data) which has just been collected from the source and has not gone any kind of statistical treatment like sorting and tabulation  Primary data is collected firsthand by a researcher (organization, person, authority, agency or party etc.) through experiments, surveys, questionnaires, focus groups, conducting interviews and taking (required) measurements o Secondary Data • Secondary data is readily available (collected by someone else) and is available to the public through publications, journals and newspapers STEP 6: The Quality of Data (30 minutes) Data quality refers to the condition of a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables. • Data is considered of high quality if it is fit for intended uses in operations, decision making and planning. • Seven characteristics of quality data o Timeliness: For data to become useful

NTA Level 6 • Semester 2 • PST06210 Basic Statistical Concepts Operational Research • Source Session/Topic 1 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 1: Basic Statistical Concepts Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define common terms used in biostatistics • Explain the importance of different measures in statistics • Explain the application of statistics in data analysis Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW Activity/ Step Time Content Method 1 5 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks 30 minutes Presentation 2 Definitions of common terms in Biostatistics Brainstorm 45minutes Presentation Importance of Different Measures in 3 Buzzing Statistics 30minutes Presentation 4 Application of Statistics in Data Analysis Brainstorming 5 05minutes Presentation Key Points 6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 1 SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of common terms in Biostatistics (30 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes • What is biostatistics? ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned WRITE their response on the flip chart/board CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below • Biostatistics can be defined as the application of statistics to biological problems. • Many biomedical scientists consider it to mean the application of statistics specifically to medical problems. • For this group of people, therefore, biostatistics and medical statistics are synonymous Other terms: • Statistics can be defined in two forms: o First ―statistics‖ as a ―noun‖ means a descriptive measure computed from data of a sample i.e. numerical statement – information that is available in numbers). Examples of this include:  Hospital data on the number of admissions for some condition in a period  How much drug (e.g. Amoxicillin capsules) is distributed to health units – hospitals, health centers and dispensaries  This first part of the subject is usually referred to as descriptive statistics o Secondly ―statistics‖ as a ―discipline‖ is a field of study concerned with:  Collecting, organizing and summarizing and analysis of data in a systematic way.  Drawing of inferences about a population on the basis of only a part of the population targeted.  This second part, which, provides objective means of drawing conclusions, constitutes inferential statistics ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 2 • Population o A collection of entities. o A statistical population means the largest collection of entities in which we have an interest. o Example we may be interested in looking at how may health facilities are given Amoxil in district X? • Sample o Part of a population. o Example number of health centers given Amoxil capsules. • Central tendency o Measures of central tendency provide a summary measure that attempts to describe data with a single value that represents the middle or center of its distribution. o There are three main measures of central tendency:  the mean,  median and  mode Mean, arithmetic mean (X or M): • The mean of a data set is also known as the average value • The sum of the scores in a distribution divided by the number of scores in the distribution. It is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. • It is often reported with its companion statistic, the standard deviation, which shows how far things vary from the average. Median (Mdn): • The midpoint or number in a distribution having 50% of the scores above it and 50% of the scores below it. • The median of a data set is the value that is at the middle of a data set arranged from smallest to largest • If there are an odd number of scores, the median is the middle score. Mode (Mo): • The number that occurs most frequently in a distribution of scores or numbers • The mode is the most common observation of a data set, or the value in the data set that occurs most frequently. Quartile • A measure of statistical dispersion which divides a frequency distribution into equal groups each containing the same fraction of the total population • The first quartile (designated Q1) is the lower and cuts off the lowest 25% of data (the 25th percentile) ___________________________________________________________________________ PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 3 • The second quartile (Q2), or the median, cuts the data set in half (the 50th percentile) • The third quartile (Q3) cuts off highest 25% of data, or the lowest 75% (the 75th percentile) Variations • Range (Ra): The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution; a measure of variability. • Standard deviation (SD): The most stable measure of variability, it takes into account each and every score in a normal distribution. This descriptive statistic assesses how far individual scores vary in standard unit lengths from its midpoint of 0. For all normal distributions, 95% of the area is within 1.96 standard deviations of the mean. • Variance (SD2): A measure of the dispersion of a set of data points around their mean value. It is a mathematical expectation of the average squared deviations from the mean. STEP 3: Importance of Measures in Statistics (45 minutes) Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following questions for 2 minutes • What are the importance of different measures in statistics ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs