PST05210 Basic Pharmacognosy

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Tropane Alkaloids Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 20 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 20: Tropane Alkaloids Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define tropane alkaloids • Explain natural sources and uses of tropane alkaloids Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD projector and Laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Objectives | |2 |20 minutes |Presentation |Introduction to Tropane Alkaloids | | | |Buzzing | | |3 |20 minutes |Presentation |Natural Sources and Uses of | | | |Brainstorming |Stramonium | |4 |25 minutes |Presentation |Natural Sources and Uses of | | | | |Belladonna | |5 |20 minutes |Presentation |Natural Sources and Uses of | | | | |Hyocyamus | |6 |20 minutes |Presentation |Natural Sources and Uses of Coca | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Objectives (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning objectives and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Introduction to Tropane Alkaloids (20 minutes) • Tropane alkaloids are derived from tropine and consist of mandelic, tropic or benzoic acid esters of tropine • Chemically they are formed by fusion of pyrrolidine and piperidine ring with a common methylated nitrogen o Tropane alkaloids are very closely related to each other • All tropane alkaloids have pronounced physiological actions • Tropane alkaloids include: o Hyoscyamine o Hyoscine o Atropine o Cocaine • They all occur within the Solanaceae family (except cocaine which occurs in Erythroxylaceae family) STEP 3: Natural Sources and Uses of Stramonium (20 minutes) • Definition o Stramonium is defined as dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura stramonium and its varieties, family Solanaceae o Its synonyms are thornapple, jimson or Jamestown weed o Drug is required to contain not less than 0.25% of alkaloid calculated as hyocyamine o Drug is widely distributed in Africa, Germany, France, Hungary o Adulterant: Solanum nigrum o Allied Drugs are Datura inoxia, Datura metel and Datura sanguinea • Constituents o Contain 0.2 – 0.45% alkaloids, the major alkaloids are; ▪ Hyoscyamine ▪ Hyoscine ▪ Small quantities of atropine o Hyoscyamine and hyoscine are found in the ration 2:1 (hyoscyamine: hyoscine) o Younger plants contain hyoscine, atropine is little and is formed from racemization of hyoscyamine o These alkaloids test positive for Vitali-Morin test • Uses of Stramonium; o Hyoscyamine is used to treat urinary tract disorders o It is used to treat spasms of the bladder o Hyoscyamine preparations are also used as antispasmodics in the therapy of peptic ulcers o Hyoscine hydrobromide is used in pre-operative medication 30 – 60 minutes before induction of anaesthesia o Hyoscine butylbromide used in irritable bowel syndrome to relief pain due to abdominal cramps o It is also used in dysmenorrhea STEP 4: Natural Sources and Uses of Belladonna (25 minutes) • Definition o Consist of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Atropa belladonna ▪ Its synonym is deadly night shade ▪ Family: Solanaceae ▪ Contains not less than 0.3% of total alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine o Adulterant: Phytolacca dodecandra o Allied drugs are Indian belladonna and Atropa acuminata • Constituents o Contains 0.3 – 0.6% of Tropane alkaloids, the chief of which is hyoscyamine o Belladonin o Small quantities of volatile bases e.g. pyridine and N- methylpyrroline are present • Pharmacological Actions o Atropine ▪ Stimulant on CNS ▪ Dilates eye pupils ▪ Decreases sweating ▪ Produces stomach acid and saliva and relaxes smooth muscle (asthma and colic) o Hyoscine ▪ lacks CNS stimulant action of atropine ▪ Sedative – motion sickness o Atropine and Hyoscine ▪ Used in ophthalmic practice to dilate pupil • Uses of Belladonna o Belladonna leaves are used for internal preparations o Used as sedative, antispasmodic and to check secretions o Roots are used for external preparations o Atropine is indicated in organophosphates and carbamate insecticides poisoning o It produces mydriatic effect by paralyzing the iris and the ciliary muscles o Is it used as an antispasmodic to lessen smooth muscle spasm/griping o Used to treat some types of arrhythmias STEP 5: Natural Sources and Uses of Hyocyamus (20 minutes) • Definition o Hyoscyamus leaf consists of the dried leaves or dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger, family Solanaceae o Common name: Henbane • Constituents: o Tropane alkaloids mainly: ▪ Hyoscyamine in small amount ▪ Hyoscine (main constituent) o Allied Drugs are Hyoscyamus albus, Hyosycamus muticus, Hyoscyamus pusillus, Hyoscyamus aureus • Uses of Hyocyamus o Resembles belladonna and stramonium in action but weaker ▪ Higher hyoscine content hence less likely to cause cerebral stimulation o Used to relieve spasm of the urinary tract o Used as a sedative o Used as an expectorant o Anti-asthmatic STEP 6: Natural Sources and Uses of Coca (20 minutes) • Definition o Coca is derived from dried leaves of Erythroxylum coca (Bolivian or Huanuco) and E. truxillense (Peruvian or Truxillo), cultivated in Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Indonesia, family Erythroxylaceae ▪ Coca leaves have been used in South America as a masticatory from very early times ▪ The leaves are artificially or sun-dried and packed in bags. o Constituents ▪ Coca leaves contain about 0.7 to 1.5% of total alkaloids, of which cocaine, cinnamylcocaine and α-truxilline are the most important. ▪ These alkaloids occur in different proportions in different commercial varieties ▪ Other substances are hygrine, hygroline, tropacocaine o Uses ▪ Local anaesthetic agent ▪ Stimulan STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Tropane alkaloids are very closely related to each other • Belladonna consists of dried leaves

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Alcoholic and Hydrocarbon Volatile Oils Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 31 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 31: Alcoholic and Hydrocarbon Volatile Oils Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe peppermint oil • Describe cardamom oil • Describe coriander oil Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD Projector and Laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |25 minutes |Presentation |Peppermint Oil | |3 |25 minutes |Presentation |Cardamom Oil | |4 |25 minutes |Presentation |Coriander Oil | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |25 minutes |Presentation |Turpentine Oil | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Peppermint Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Peppermint oil is an oil that has a strong peppermint odour and produces a cooling sensation in the mouth obtained by distillation from dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha piperita L. (Fam. Labiatae) • Constituents o Menthol o Menthone o Methyl acetate o The official oil is required to contain 4.5 – 10% of esters calculated as methyl acetate, not less than 44% of free alcohols calculated as menthol and 15-32% of ketones calculated as menthone • Uses o Peppermint, and is used chiefly as a flavouring agent and as a carminative o Treatment of common cold, cough, inflammation of the mouth and throat, sinus infections, and respiratory infections o Treatment of digestive problems including heartburn, nausea, vomiting, morning sickness, irritable bowel syndrome, cramps of the upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts, upset stomach, diarrhea, bacterial overgrowth of the small intestine, and gas o Peppermint oil is also used for headache, muscle pain, nerve pain, toothache, inflammation of the mouth, joint conditions, itchiness (the oil is a counterirritant), allergic rash, bacterial and viral infections, relaxing the colon during barium enemas, and for repelling mosquitoes o Used as a flavouring agent o It has carminative action STEP 3: Cardamom Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Cardamom oils is an oil obtained from dried ripened seeds of Elettaria cardamomum, family Zingiberaceae • Constituents o Terpinol o Terpinyl acetate o Borneol o Fixed oils • Uses o Flavouring agent o Carminative o Gastrointestinal stimulant o Used in dyspepsia and flatulence STEP 4: Coriander Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Coriander oil is an oil obtained from fresh leaves and dried seeds of Coriander sativum, family Umbeliferae • Constituents o d-pinene o fixed oil o Calcium oxalate |Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |What are the uses of coriander oils? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 5 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not | |mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Uses o Flavouring agent o Carminative agent o Stimulant STEP 5: Turpentine Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Turpentine oil is an oil obtained by distilation from Pinus palustris and other species of Pinus e.g. Pinus longifolia, family Pinaceae o The oil is colourless with characteristic odour and highly flammable o The oil is re-distilled with NaOH to form rectified oil of turpentine • Constituents o ( and (- Pinene o Methylcarbachol o Camphene • Uses o Counter irritant o Local irritant o Rectified oil is used internally as a diuretic, urinary antiseptic, anthelminthic and expectorant STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes) • Peppermint oil is an oil that has a strong peppermint odor and produces a cooling sensation in the mouth obtained by distillation from dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha piperita • Peppermint, and is used chiefly as a flavouring agent and as a carminative • Turpentine oil is an oil obtained by distilation from Pinus palustris and other species of Pinus belonging to family Pinaceae STEP 8: Evaluation (5 minutes) ← What are the uses of peppermint oil? ← What is the use of coriander oil? ← What is the source of cardamom oil? References Ryman, Daniele (1984). The Aromatherapy Handbook: The Secret Healing Power of Essential Oils. Century Publishing CO. Ltd. pp. Chapter 3. Soares, I., Loreto, É, Rossato, L., Mario, D., Venturini, T., Baldissera, F., Alves, S. (2015). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from condiments against fluconazole-resistant and -sensitive Candida glabrata. Journal De Mycologie Médicale,25(3), 213-217. doi:10.1016/j. mycmed.2015.06.003 Trease, G. E., Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. London: Saunders. Joanne Barnes et al (2002), Herbal medicines 3rd Edition: Pharmaceutical Press Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., Tyler, V. E., & Tyler, V. E. (1996). Pharmacognosy and pharmacobiotechnology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Heinrich, M., Kinghorn, A. D., Maizels, D., Gibbons, S., & Phillipson, J. D. (2012). Fundamentals of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Basic Pharmacognosy topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Ketonic and Aldehydic Volatile Oils Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 32 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 32: Ketonic and Aldehydic Volatile Oils Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe Spearmint Oil • Describe Camphor Oil • Describe Lemon Oil • Describe Orange Oil • Describe Cinnamon Oil Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD Projector and laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Task | |2 |20 minutes |Presentation |Spearmint Oil | |3 |20 minutes |Presentation |Camphor Oil | |4 |20 minutes |Buzzing |Lemon Oil | | | |Presentation | | |5 |20 minutes |Presentation |Orange Oil | |6 |20 minutes |Presentation |Cinnamon Oil | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |8 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Spearmint Oil (20 minutes) • Definition o Spearmint oil is an aromatic essential oil obtained by steam distillation of the dry/fresh leaves and flowering tops of Mentha spicata • Constituents o Carvone o Limonene o Phellandrenes o Esters o Official oil should contain not less than 55% of carvone • Uses o As a carminative agent o As a flavouring agents in pharmaceutical preparations and foods STEP 3: Camphor Oil (20 minutes) • Definition o Camphor is an oil obtained by distillation of wood of stem ad root of Cinnamomum camphora o Brown and yellow camphor oil has high safrol levels and are toxic and carcinogenic • Constituents o Main constituents include α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, sabinene, phellandrene, limonene, geraniol, safrole, cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, methyl cinnamate • Uses o Analgesic o Antidepressant o Anti-inflammatory o Antiseptic o Diuretic, febrifuge, anti-hypertensive, insecticide, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant and vermifuge o It is also used in cosmetics STEP 4: Lemon Oil (20 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is lemon oil? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not| |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Definition o Lemon oil is an oil obtained by expression from the fresh peel of the fruits of Citrus limon • Constituents o Vitamin C o Limonene o Flavonoids o Glycosides o Citronellol o Hisperidine • Uses o Carminative o Aromatic o Flavouring agent STEP 5: Orange Oil (20 minutes) • Definition o Orange oil is an essential oil obtained by expression from the rind (peels) of bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) and sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) family Rutaceae • Constituents o Vitamin C o α-pinene o Sabinene o Limonene o Myrcene o Linanool o citronellal o Neral o Geranial o Calcium oxalate • Uses o Carminative o Flavouring agent o Antiseptic o Anti-depressant o Antispasmodic o Anti-inflammatory agent o Carminative agent o Cholagogoue o Diuretic o Sedative o Tonic STEP 6: Cinnamon Oil (20 minutes) • Definition o Cinnamon oil is an oil obtained from dried inner bark of the shoot of Cinnamomum loureirii, family Lauraceae ▪ The outer bark is scrapped off and inner bark removed with care from hard wood as quill o Constituents ▪ Cinnamic acid ▪ Cinnamaldehyde ▪ Caryophylline ▪ Resins ▪ Tannins ▪ Mucillages ▪ Calcium oxalate o Uses ▪ As flavouring agent ▪ Carminative agent ▪ Diuretic STEP 7: Key Points (10 minutes) • Spearmint oil is an aromatic essential oil obtained by steam distillation of the aerial structures of Mentha spicata • Orange oil is an essential oil obtained by expression from the rind (peels) of an orange fruit, Citrus sinensis family Rutaceae • Camphor is an oil obtained by distillation of wood of stem ad root of Cinnamomum camphora STEP 8: Evaluation (5 minutes) ← What are the uses of lemon oil? ← What is orange oil? ← What are therapeutic uses of cinnamon oil References Ryman, Daniele (1984). The Aromatherapy Handbook: The Secret Healing Power of Essential Oils. Century Publishing CO. Ltd. pp. Chapter 3. Soares, I., Loreto, É, Rossato, L., Mario, D., Venturini, T., Baldissera, F., Alves, S. (2015). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from condiments against fluconazole-resistant and -sensitive Candida glabrata. Journal De Mycologie Médicale,25(3), 213-217. doi:10.1016/j.mycmed.2015.06.003 Trease, G. E., Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. London: Saunders. Joanne Barnes et al (2002), Herbal medicines 3rd Edition: Pharmaceutical Press Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., Tyler, V. E., & Tyler, V. E. (1996). Pharmacognosy and pharmacobiotechnology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Heinrich, M., Kinghorn, A. D., Maizels, D., Gibbons, S., & Phillipson, J. D. (2012). Fundamentals of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Basic Pharmacognosy topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Phenolic ether, Phenolic, Oxide and Ester Volatile Oils Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 33 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 33: Phenolic ether, Phenolic, Oxide and Ester Volatile Oils Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe fennel oil • Describe anise oil • Describe clove oil • Describe eucalyptus oil • Describe lavender oil • Describe rosemary oil • Describe dill oil Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD projector and laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Task | |2 |15 minutes |Presentation |Fennel Oil | |3 |15 minutes |Presentation |Anise Oil | |4 |15 minutes |Presentation |Clove Oil | | | |Buzzing | | |5 |15 minutes |Presentation |Eucalyptus Oil | |6 |15 minutes |Presentation |Lavender Oil | |7 |15 minutes |Presentation |Rosemary Oil | |8 |15 minutes |Presentation |Dill Oil | | | |Brainstorming | | |9 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |10 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Fennel Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Fennel oil is an oil obtained from dried ripened seeds of Foeniculum vulgare family Umbelliferae • Constituents o Anethole o Fenchone • Uses o Carminative o Stimulant o Flavouring agent STEP 3: Anise Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Anise oil is an oil distilled from dried ripened fruit of Pimpenella anisum, family Umbelliferae • Constituents o Anethole o Safrole o Fixed oils • Uses o Carminative o Stimulant o Flavouring agent STEP 4: Clove Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Clove oil is a colourless or pale yellow oil obtained by distillation from dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus (or Syzygium aromaticum), family Myrtaceae o The oil is sensitive to air • Constituents o Eugenol o Acetyleugenol o Gallotamic acid o Carvacrol |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are uses of clove oil? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond? | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Uses o Stimulant o Carminative o Irritant o Condiment o Local anaesthetic o Analgesic o Antiseptic o Flavouring agent STEP 4: Eucalyptus Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Eucalyptus oil is an oil obtained by distilled from the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus globlus, family Myrtaceae o The oil is colourless or pale yellow with aromatic (camphoraceous) odour • Constituents o Eucalyptol o Cineol o Resins o Tannins o Eucalyptic acid • Uses o As an expectorant agent o Rubefacient o Antiseptic o Decongestant o Diaphoretic STEP 5: Lavender Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Lavender oil is an oil obtained by steam distillation from flowering tops of Lavandulla officinalis (Family Lamiaceae) o The oil is colourless or pale yellow in colour with light fresh aroma • Constituents o α-pinene o Limonene o Linalyl acetate • Uses o As an antiseptic agent o Used to relieve tension, depression, panic hysteria and nervous exhaustion o Used for headache, migraines and insomnia o Relives pain associated with rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago and muscles o It is employed pharmaceutically in the anti-arthropod preparation of Gamma Benzene Hexachloride o Relives problems associated with gastrointestinal tract including nausea, vomiting, colics and flatulence STEP 6: Rosemary Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Rosemary oil is an oil obtained from flowering tops of Rosmarinus officinalis (family Lamiaceae) • Constituents o Rosmarinic acid o Camphor o Caffeic acid o Betulinic acid o Rosmaridiphenol • Uses o As an antioxidant o Relief of gastrointestinal problems including heartburn, flatulence and loss of appetite o Used for gout, cough, headache, toothache, high blood pressure, and reducing age-related memory loss (It is a memory enhancer) o It is also used topically for preventing and treating baldness, eczema and promotion of wound healing o It is also used as an insect repellent STEP 6: Dill Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Dill oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from dried leaves and seeds of Anethum graveolens, family Apiaceae o The oil has a grass smell • Constituents o Carvone o Limonene • Uses o Carminative o Flavouring agent o Used with water to create dill water STEP 7: Key Points (5 minutes) • Lavender oil is an oil obtained by steam distillation from flowering tops of Lavandulla officinalis (Family Lamiaceae) • Fennel oil is an oil obtained from dried ripened seeds of Foeniculum vulgare • Rosemary oil is an oil obtained from flowering tops of Rosmarinus officinalis • Dill oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from dried leaves and seeds of Anethum graveolens STEP 8: Evaluation (5 minutes) ← What is the chief constituent of clove oil? ← What are the constituents of dill oil? ← What is dill water? References Ryman, Daniele (1984). The Aromatherapy Handbook: The Secret Healing Power of Essential Oils. Century Publishing CO. Ltd. pp. Chapter 3 Soares, I., Loreto, É, Rossato, L., Mario, D., Venturini, T., Baldissera, F., Alves, S. (2015). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from condiments against fluconazole-resistant and -sensitive Candida glabrata. Journal De Mycologie Médicale,25(3), 213-217. doi:10.1016/j.mycmed.2015.06.003 Trease, G. E., Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. London: Saunders. Joanne Barnes et al (2002), Herbal medicines 3rd Edition: Pharmaceutical Press Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., Tyler, V. E., & Tyler, V.

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Introduction to Fixed oils and Fats Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 34 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 34: Introduction to Fixed oils and Fats Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define fixed oils and fats • Explain the distribution and occurrence of fixed oils and fats • List methods for extraction of fixed oils and fats • Explain the evaluation of fixed oils and fats • List uses of fixed oils and fats Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD Projector and Laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |25 minutes |Presentation |Distribution and Characteristics | | | |Brainstorming |of Fixed Oils and Fats | |3 |25 minutes |Presentation |Extraction of Fixed Oils and Fats | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation of Fixed Oils and Fats | |5 | |Small group |Uses of Fixed Oils and Fats | | |25 minutes |discussion | | | | |Presentation | | |6 |5 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Distribution and Characteristics of Fixed Oils and Fats (25 minutes) • Occurrence o Fixed oils and fats are lipids (esters) of long chain fatty acids and alcohol o Fixed oils and fats are widely distributed and occur in both vegetative and reproductive structures o They are found often in seeds, where they may replace the carbohydrate as reserve food material o They are also associated with protein reserves o As lipids, fats form an essential component of biological membranes o Fixed oils occur in plant materials as small highly refractive drops o Oil globules associated with aleurone grains can be well seen in cotyledons of linseed and colocynth, and in the endosperm of nux vomica • Physical Characteristics o Fixed oils and fats are soluble in ether-alcohol, few exceptions such as castor oil are sparingly soluble in alcohol o At ordinary temperature fats are semisolid/ solid and fixed oils are liquid at normal temperature o Most vegetable oils are liquid at ordinary temperature but animal fats are solid o There are exceptions, e.g. coconut oil, in temperate temperature is solid and tropic temperature it is liquid oil • Chemical Characteristics o They are esters of long chain fatty acids and alcohols or closely related derivatives of alcohols o The fatty acids forming the oils can be saturated or unsaturated o Most animal products contain saturated fatty acids while most plant products contain unsaturated fatty acids o A special group of unsaturated fatty acids (the ω-3fatty acids) are vital to human health as they lower cholesterol levels in the body |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the chemical tests for fixed oils and fats? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond? | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Fixed oils and fats are coloured brown or black with a 1% solution of Osmic acid • In dilute tincture of Alkanna, fixed oils and fats slowly turn red • Saponification reaction • A cold mixture of equal parts of a saturated solution of potash and strong solution of ammonia slowly saponifies fixed oils and fats resulting in observable characteristic soap crystals STEP 3: Extraction of Fixed Oils and Fats (25 minutes) • Processes that are employed in the extraction of oil from raw materials depends on the botanical source of the oil • Important processes include; o Decortication –crushing to remove seed coat o Expression – kernels are placed onto the oil presses and subjected to pressure with or without application of heat o Filtration – separates oil from other matters and may be done several times to attain purity. o Steaming -at high temperature to inactivate proteins and other materials e.g. castor oil requires steaming • Extraction methods used for fixed oils and fats include; o Expression (cold or hot) o Solvent extraction STEP 4: Evaluation of Fixed Oils and Fats (30 minutes) • Each kind of fixed oil or fat has a specific standard used for evaluation o Physical standards include; ▪ Specific gravity ▪ Melting point ▪ Refractive index ▪ Optical rotation ▪ Color ▪ Odor • Chemical standards include; o Acid Value o Saponification Value o Iodine value o Ester value STEP 5: Uses of Fixed Oils and Fats (25 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the uses of fixed oils and fats? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned| | | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • They are used in preparation of suppositories • They are used in tablet coating • They are employed as emulsifying agents • They have therapeutic uses e.g. laxatives etc. STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Fixed oils and fats are esters of long chain fatty acids and alcohol • At ordinary temperature fats are semisolid/ solid and fixed oils are liquid at normal temperature • Fixed oils and fats are coloured brown or black with a 1% solution of Osmic acid STEP 7: Evaluation (5

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Castor, Olive, Cod-liver and Peanut Oils Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 35 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 35: Castor, Olive, Cod-liver and Peanut Oils Total Session Time: 120 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Castor oil • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Olive oil • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Cod liver oil • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Peanut oil Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD Projector and Laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Objectives | |2 |30 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | |Buzzing |Uses of Castor Oil | |3 |25 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | | |Uses of Olive Oil | |4 |25 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | | |Uses of Cod-liver Oil | |5 |25 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | |Brainstorming |Uses of Peanut Oil | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Castor Oil (30 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is Castor oil? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Definition o Castor oil is a monounsaturated fixed oil obtained from ripe seeds of Ricinus communis, family Euphorbiaceae o Castor seeds are decorticated and the kernels separated from the testa and cold-expressed in hydraulic presses o The oil is pale yellow or almost colorless, transparent • Constituents o The seeds contain 45-55% fixed oil, 20% protein, ricin (toxic alkaloid), recinine and several enzymes e.g. lipase • Uses o Stimulant cathartic for total colonic evacuation prior to surgery o Emollient o Employed in manufacture of soaps o Hydrogenated oil is used as a stiffening agent in some pharmaceutical formulations STEP 3: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Olive Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Olive oil is a fixed oil obtained from the ripe fruit of Olea europoae family Oleaceae o The oil is an evergreen tree and fruits are drupes, purple when ripe o Oil is pale yellow/light greenish yellow, slight odor, taste is bland to faintly acrid • Constituents o Linoleic acid o Oleic acid o Palmitic acid and o Stearic acid • Uses o Externally as demulcent & emollient agent o Laxatives o Used as a purgative administered after food poisoning STEP 4: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Cod-liver Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Cod-liver oil is a fixed oil from the fresh livers of cod fish, Gadus morrhua, family Gadidae o The oil is a mixed triglyceride, mainly unsaturated C16-22 acids and decahexanoic acid • Constituents o Omega 3 fatty acids o Vitamin A o Vitamin D • Uses o Prevention and cure of rickets o Important source of vitamin A and D o For treatment of pain and stiffness of joint in arthritis STEP 5: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Peanut Oil (25 minutes) • Definition o Peanut oil or arachis oil is a fixed oil obtained from seeds of Arachis hypogaea (Leguminosae) o Seeds contain 40-50% oil • Constituents o Oleic acid 60% o Linoleic acid 24% o Palmitic acid 9% o Arachidonic acid • Uses |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the uses of Arachis oil? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond? | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Dietary supplements • Pharmaceutically solvent for intravenous and intramuscular injections STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Castor oil is monounsaturated fixed oil obtained from ripe seeds of Ricinus communis • Olive oil (also known as salad oil, sweet oil) are fixed oil from the ripe fruit of Olea europoae • Arachis oil is obtained from seeds of Arachis hypogaea • Cod-liver oil is a fixed oil from the fresh livers of cod fish, Gadus morrhua, and it is used as a supplement for vitamin A and D STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What are constituents of cod liver oil? • What are the uses of arachis oil? • What are the uses of Castor oil? References Trease, G. E., Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. London: Saunders. Joanne Barnes et al (2002), Herbal medicines 3rd Edition: Pharmaceutical Press Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., Tyler, V. E., & Tyler, V. E. (1996). Pharmacognosy and pharmacobiotechnology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Heinrich, M., Kinghorn, A. D., Maizels, D., Gibbons, S., & Phillipson, J. D. (2012). Fundamentals of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Basic Pharmacognosy topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Almond, Linseed, Coconut and Cottonseed Oils Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 36 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 36: Almond, Linseed, Coconut and Cottonseed Oils Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Almond oil • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Linseed oil • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Coconut oil • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Cottonseed oil Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD Projector and Laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |15 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | |Brainstorming |Uses of Almond Oil | |3 |10 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | | |Uses of Linseed Oil | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | |Buzzing |Uses of Coconut Oil | |5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | | |Uses of Cottonseed Oil | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 7|05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Almond Oil (15 minutes) • Definition o Almond oil is a fixed oil obtained by expression from kernels of Prunus amygdalus, family Rosaceae Var dulcis (sweet almond) or P. amygdalus Var amara (bitter almond) o The oil is pale yellow liquid with a slight odour and bland, nutty taste • Constituents o Oleic acid o Linolenic acid o Amygdalin (bitter almond) • Uses o Vehicle in oily injections o Laxative o Volatile oils are flavouring agents STEP 3: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Linseed Oil (10 minutes) • Definition o Linseed oil (or flaxseed oil) is a fixed oil obtained from the dried, ripe seed of Linum usitatissimum (flaxseed), family Linaceae • Constituents o Palmitic acid o Stearic acid o Alpha linoleic acid (ALA) o Oleic acid • Uses o Used in lowering blood cholesterol levels (due to presence of ALA), control blood pressure o Used in treatment of inflammation associated with gout o Controls constipation o It is an important drying oil in the paint and varnish industry STEP 4: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Coconut Oil (10 minutes) • Definition o Coconut oil is a fixed oil obtained by expression or extraction from the seeds of Cocos nucifera (Palmae) o The oil is pale yellow to colourless liquid which may have an odour of coconut • Constituents o Lauric acid (chief constituent) o Myristic acid o Stearic acid o Caproic acid o Capric acid o Caprylic acid o Palmitic acid • Uses |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are the uses of Coconut oil? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Uses of coconut oil include; o Pharmaceutically in ointment base o Cosmetically as a moisturizer o Also used in making soap, candles, chocolate, candies etc. STEP 5: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Cottonseed Oil (10 minutes) • Definition o Cotton seed oil is a fixed oil expressed from seeds of Gossypium hirustum family Malvaceae • Constituents o Oleic acid o Linoleic acid o Palmitic acid o Stearic acid • Uses o Solvent in injections o Used in the manufacture of soaps STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Coconut oil is the fixed oil obtained from the seeds of Cocos nucifera (Palmae) • Almond is used as vehicle in oily injections and as laxative agent • Cottonseed oil is obtained from expressed seeds of Gossypium hiruslum STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What are the natural source of Coconut oil • What are the uses of cottonseed oil? • What are the uses of Linseed oil? References Trease, G. E., Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. London: Saunders. Joanne Barnes et al (2002), Herbal medicines 3rd Edition: Pharmaceutical Press Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., Tyler, V. E., & Tyler, V. E. (1996). Pharmacognosy and pharmacobiotechnology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Heinrich, M., Kinghorn, A. D., Maizels, D., Gibbons, S., & Phillipson, J. D. (2012). Fundamentals of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Basic Pharmacognosy topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Fats Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 37 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 37: Fats Total Session Time: 60 minutes Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define fats • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Wool fats • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Lanolin • Explain natural source, constituents and uses of Lard Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers • LCD Projector and Laptop SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Objectives | |2 |15 minutes |Brainstorming |Definition of Fats | | | |Presentation | | |3 | |Small group |Natural Source, Constituents and | | |20 minutes |discussion |Uses of Lanolin and Wool Fats | | | |Presentation | | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Natural Source, Constituents and | | | | |Uses of Lard | |5 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |05 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing. STEP 2: Definition of Fats (15 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are fats? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | • Fats are natural oily substances occurring in animal bodies, especially deposited as a layer under the skin or around internal organs • They are a group of natural esters of glycerol and various fatty acids, which are solid at room temperature and are the main constituents of animal and vegetable fat STEP 3: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Lanolin and Wool Fats (20 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following questions | |What is lanolin and wool fats? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not | |mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Definition o Lanolin is a purified fat-like substance prepared from the wool of the sheep Ovis aries, family Bovidae o Lanolin is also known as hydrous wool fat o Wool fat is a pale yellow substance with a characteristic odor obtained after purification, bleaching and dehydration of lanolin • Constituents o Both lanolin and wool fat are rich in cholesterol, isocholesterol and unsaturated monohydric alcohols • Uses o Emollient base for creams and ointments o Major component of most ointments STEP 4: Natural Source, Constituents and Uses of Lard (10 minutes) • Definition o Lard is a purified internal fat of the hog, Sus scrofa o Prepared from the abdominal fat o Obtained by treatment with hot water. o Lard is soft, white fat with a non-rancid odor. • Constituents o Lard contains 40% solid glycerides such as myristin and 60% of mixed liquid glycerides such as olein • Uses o In preparation of ointments and perfumes STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes) • Fat is any of a group of natural esters of glycerol and various fatty acids, which are solid at room temperature and are the main constituents of animal and vegetable fat. • Wool fat is used as an emollient base for creams and ointments • Lard is an abdominal fat obtained from purified internal fat of the hog, Sus scrofa STEP 6: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What is the natural source of wool fat? • What is the use of lanolin in pharmacy? • What is lard? References Trease, G. E., Evans, W. C., & Evans, D. (2009). Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. London: Saunders. Joanne Barnes et al (2002), Herbal medicines 3rd Edition: Pharmaceutical Press Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., Tyler, V. E., & Tyler, V. E. (1996). Pharmacognosy and pharmacobiotechnology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Heinrich, M., Kinghorn, A. D., Maizels, D., Gibbons, S., & Phillipson, J. D. (2012). Fundamentals of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Basic Pharmacognosy topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Waxes 219 Basic Pharmacognosy • Source Session/Topic 38 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 38: Waxes 219 Background There is currently an ever-increasing demand for pharmaceutical personnel in Tanzania. This is due to expanding investment in public and private pharmaceutical sector. Shortage of trained pharmaceutical human resource contributes to poor quality of pharmaceutical services and low access to medicines in the country (GIZ, 2012). Through Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) the Pharmacy Council (PC) together with Development Partners (DPs) in Germany and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs) worked together to address the shortage of human resource for pharmacy by designing a project named “Supporting Training Institutions for Improved Pharmaceutical Services in Tanzania” in order to improve quality and capacity of PTIs in training, particularly of lower cadre pharmaceutical personnel. The Pharmacy Council formed a Steering committee that conducted a stakeholder’s workshop from18th – 22ndAugust 2014 in Morogoro to initiate the implementation of the project. Key activities in the implementation of this project included carrying out situational analysis, curriculum review and harmonization, development of training manual/facilitators guide, development of assessment plan, training of trainers and supportive supervision. After the curricula were reviewed and harmonized, the process of developing standardised training materials started through Writer’s Workshop approach. The approach included a number of workshops for developing, reviewing, editing and formatting the sessions of the modules. The goals of writer’s workshops were to build capacity of tutors in the development of training materials and to develop high-quality, standardized teaching materials. The training package for pharmacy cadres includes a facilitator guide, assessment plan and practicum. There are 11 modules for NTA level 5 making 11 facilitator guides including one practicum guide. Acknowledgment The development of standardized training materials of a competence-based curriculum for pharmaceutical sciences has been accomplished through involvement of different stakeholders. Special thanks go to the Pharmacy Council for spearheading the harmonization of training materials in the pharmacy after noticing that training institutions in Tanzania were using different curricula and train their students differently. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Christian Social Service Commission (CSSC) for their tireless efforts to mobilize funds from development partners (German Ministry of Industry and action medeor). It is through the implementation of the Multi-Actors Partnership (MAP) project, CSSC has been able to provide the financial and technical support needed during the development of this training material. Many thanks go to the Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) experts on health material development and training who coordinated the development of these module sessions particularly Ms. Diana H. Gamuya for her commitment in coordinating and facilitating the planning and development to its completion. Particular acknowledgements are sent to Mr. Dickson Mtalitinya and Members from the secretariat of National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) for facilitating and providing their expertise to the success of this work. It will be unfair if I will not recognize the efforts and contributions of all CEDHA supportive staff that made this process a success; accountant, secretary, drivers and printers Finally, I very much appreciate the contributions of the tutors and content experts representing PTIs, hospitals, and other health training institutions. Their participation in meetings and workshops, and their input in the development of this training manual/facilitators guide have been invaluable. These participants are listed with our gratitude below: Ms. Elizabeth Shekalaghe Registrar, Pharmacy Council of Tanzania Health,MoHCDGEC Dr. Catherine Jincen Acting Principal, CEDHA Dr. Sungwa N. Kabissi Project Manager – MAP, CSSC Ms. Diana H. Gamuya CEDHA Ms. Grace Mallange PC Ms. Emily Mwakibolwa Pharmacy Council Ms. Tumaini H. Lyombe MUHAS Ms. Dilisi J. Makawia KSP Director of Human Resources Development Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children Introduction Module Overview This module content is a guide for tutors of Pharmaceutical schools for training of students. The session contents are based on sub-enabling outcomes and their related tasks of the curriculum for Technician Course in Pharmaceutical Sciences. The module sub-enabling outcomes and their related tasks are as indicated in the in the Technician Certificate in Pharmaceutical Sciences (NTA Level 5) Curriculum Target Audience This module is intended for use primarily by tutors of pharmaceutical schools. The module’s sessions give guidance on the time, activities and provide information on how to teach the session. The sessions include different activities, which focus on increasing students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes. Organization of the Module The module consists of thirty eight (38) sessions; each session is divided into several parts as indicated below: • Session Title: The name of the session • Total Session Time: The estimated time for teaching the session, indicated in minutes • Pre-requisites: A module or session, which needs to be covered before teaching the session. • Learning Tasks: Statements which indicate what the student is expected to learn by the end of the session • Resources Needed: All resources needed for the session are listed including handouts and worksheets • Session Overview: The session overview box lists the steps, time for each step, the activity or method used in each step and the step title • Session Content: All the session contents are divided into steps. Each step has a heading and an estimated time to teach that step as shown in the overview box. Also, this section includes instructions for the tutor and activities with their instructions to be done during teaching of the contents • Key Points: Key messages for concluding the session contents at the end of a session This step summarizes the main points and ideas from the session, based on the learning tasks of the session • Evaluation: The last section of the session consists of short questions based on the learning tasks to check the understanding of students. • Handouts: Additional information, which can be used in the classroom while teaching or later for students’, further learning. Handouts are used to provide

NTA Level 5 • Semester 2 • PST05210 Basic Pharmacognosy – Complete Full Notes Complete educational source text in one page Completeness safeguard: this page keeps the complete educational module/source wording in one place so learning material is not lost when browsing topic by topic. Presenter/tutor metadata is intentionally excluded. | | UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children Facilitator Guide Copyright © Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children – 20 Table of Contents Background iii Acknowledgment iv Introduction vi Abbreviations/Acronym viii Session 1: Introduction to Pharmacognosy 1 Session 2: The Plant Cell 7 Session 3: Plant Tissues 14 Session 4: Plant Tissue Systems 23 Session 5: Morphology of the Roots 28 Session 6: Morphology of Stems 36 Session 7: Morphology of the Leaf 44 Session 8: Morphology of the Flower 52 Session 9: Morphology of the Fruit 58 Session 10: Morphology of the Seed 64 Session 11: Pharmaceutical Barks 69 Session 12: Cultivation of medicinal plants 74 Session 13: Collection, Processing and Storage of Medicinal Plants 83 Session 14: Extraction of Active Medicinal Principals from Natural Sources 90 Session 15: Adulteration of Medicinal Plants 97 Session 16: Introduction to Ergastic Substances 102 Session 17: Gum, Mucilage and Pectins 109 Session 18: Introduction to Alkaloids 115 Session 19: Classification, Uses and Extraction of Alkaloids 120 Session 20: Tropane Alkaloids 127 Session 21: Lobelia and Tobacco 133 Session 22: Quinoline Alkaloids 137 Session 23: Isoquinoline Alkaloids 141 Session 24: Indole and Imidazole Alkaloids 146 Session 25: Purine Alkaloids 153 Session 26: Proto alkaloids 158 Session 27: Introduction of Glycosides 162 Session 28: Cardiac Glycosides 166 Session 29: Anthraquinone Glycosides 172 Session 30: Introduction to Volatile Oils and Resins 177 Session 31: Alcoholic and Hydrocarbon Volatile Oils 183 Session 32: Ketonic and Aldehydic Volatile Oils 188 Session 33: Phenolic ether, Phenolic, Oxide and Ester Volatile Oils 194 Session 34: Introduction to Fixed oils and Fats 200 Session 35: Castor, Olive, Cod-liver and Peanut Oils 205 Session 36: Almond, Linseed, Coconut and Cottonseed Oils 210 Session 37: Fats 215 Session 38: Waxes 219 Background There is currently an ever-increasing demand for pharmaceutical personnel in Tanzania. This is due to expanding investment in public and private pharmaceutical sector. Shortage of trained pharmaceutical human resource contributes to poor quality of pharmaceutical services and low access to medicines in the country (GIZ, 2012). Through Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) the Pharmacy Council (PC) together with Development Partners (DPs) in Germany and Pharmaceutical Training Institutions (PTIs) worked together to address the shortage of human resource for pharmacy by designing a project named “Supporting Training Institutions for Improved Pharmaceutical Services in Tanzania” in order to improve quality and capacity of PTIs in training, particularly of lower cadre pharmaceutical personnel. The Pharmacy Council formed a Steering committee that conducted a stakeholder’s workshop from18th – 22ndAugust 2014 in Morogoro to initiate the implementation of the project. Key activities in the implementation of this project included carrying out situational analysis, curriculum review and harmonization, development of training manual/facilitators guide, development of assessment plan, training of trainers and supportive supervision. After the curricula were reviewed and harmonized, the process of developing standardised training materials started through Writer’s Workshop approach. The approach included a number of workshops for developing, reviewing, editing and formatting the sessions of the modules. The goals of writer’s workshops were to build capacity of tutors in the development of training materials and to develop high-quality, standardized teaching materials. The training package for pharmacy cadres includes a facilitator guide, assessment plan and practicum. There are 11 modules for NTA level 5 making 11 facilitator guides including one practicum guide. Acknowledgment The development of standardized training materials of a competence-based curriculum for pharmaceutical sciences has been accomplished through involvement of different stakeholders. Special thanks go to the Pharmacy Council for spearheading the harmonization of training materials in the pharmacy after noticing that training institutions in Tanzania were using different curricula and train their students differently. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Christian Social Service Commission (CSSC) for their tireless efforts to mobilize funds from development partners (German Ministry of Industry and action medeor). It is through the implementation of the Multi-Actors Partnership (MAP) project, CSSC has been able to provide the financial and technical support needed during the development of this training material. Many thanks go to the Centre for Educational Development in Health Arusha (CEDHA) experts on health material development and training who coordinated the development of these module sessions particularly Ms. Diana H. Gamuya for her commitment in coordinating and facilitating the planning and development to its completion. Particular acknowledgements are sent to Mr. Dickson Mtalitinya and Members from the secretariat of National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) for facilitating and providing their expertise to the success of this work. It will be unfair if I will not recognize the efforts and contributions of all CEDHA supportive staff that made this process a success; accountant, secretary, drivers and printers Finally, I very much appreciate the contributions of the tutors and content experts representing PTIs, hospitals, and other health training institutions. Their participation in meetings and workshops, and their input in the development of this training manual/facilitators guide have been invaluable. These participants are listed with our gratitude below: Ms. Elizabeth Shekalaghe Registrar, Pharmacy Council of Tanzania Health,MoHCDGEC Dr. Catherine Jincen Acting Principal, CEDHA Dr. Sungwa N. Kabissi Project Manager – MAP, CSSC Ms. Diana H. Gamuya CEDHA Ms. Grace Mallange PC Ms. Emily Mwakibolwa Pharmacy Council Ms. Tumaini H. Lyombe MUHAS Ms. Dilisi J. Makawia KSP Director of Human Resources Development Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children Introduction Module Overview This module content is a guide for tutors of Pharmaceutical schools for training of students. The session contents are based on sub-enabling outcomes and their related tasks of the curriculum for Technician Course in Pharmaceutical Sciences. The module sub-enabling outcomes and their related tasks are as indicated in the in the Technician Certificate in Pharmaceutical Sciences