PST Level 4 Semester 1

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Methods of Controlling Vector-borne Diseases Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 4 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 4: Methods of Controlling Vector-borne Diseases Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • List Common Vector-borne Diseases • Describe Vectors of Medical Importance • Describe Methods of Vector Control Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes|Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |10 minutes|Presentation |Common Vector/borne Diseases | |3 |20 minutes|Presentation |Vectors of Medical Importance | | | |Buzzing | | |4 |60 minutes|Presentation |Methods of Vector Control | | | |Group discussion | | |5 |05 minutes|Presentation |Key Points | | |10 minutes|Presentation |Evaluation | |6 | | | | | |10 minutes|Presentation |Assignment | |7 | | | | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Vector-borne Diseases (10 minutes) Common Vector borne Diseases: • Vector is any carrier of disease (insects, mosquitos, ticks and snails) which are an essential part of the life cycle of the disease causative organism • Vectors acquire disease organisms by sucking blood from infected persons or animals and pass them on by same route Common vector borne diseases: • Malaria • Filariasis • Trypanosomiasis • Yellow fever • Plague • Schistosomiasis STEP 3: Vectors of Medical Importance (20 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are vectors of medical importance? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | The following are Vectors of Medical importance: Table 4.1 Common vectors and the diseases they transmit |Vector |Disease(s) | |Mosquitoes |Malaria, filariasis, yellow fever, dengue | | |fever | |Black flies |River blindness | |Biting flies |Trypanosomiasis ( sleeping sickness) | |Lice |Relapsing fever ( louse-borne ) | |Fleas |Plague | |Soft ticks |Relapsing fever ( tick-borne ) | |Hard ticks |African tick-borne typhus | STEP 4: Methods of Vector Control (60 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 20 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the methods of vector control? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Methods of Vector Control: The control may be brought about by: • Reducing the reservoir host o Control the vector population o Killing adults with insecticides o Killing larva with larvicides o Prevention of breeding sites by environmental sanitation • Protecting the susceptible individuals o Use of insecticide treated nets o Ue of chemoprophylaxis o Use of repellents and protective clothing STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes) • Vector is any carrier of disease • A vector is required for the transmission of vector-borne diseases. • Measures that reduce vector population and protect susceptible hosts are used to control vector-borne diseases STEP 6: Evaluation (10 minutes) • What are the common vectors borne diseases? • What are the vectors of medical importance? • What are the methods of controlling vector-borne diseases? STEP 7: Assignment (10 minutes) |Activity: Take Home Assignment (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students in groups or individuals | | | |ASK the students to work on the following assignment | |Prepare a presentation of at least 5 common vector-borne diseases in | |their local area and give measures on how to control it | | | |ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignments and submit | | | |REFER students to recommended references | References Cook, G., & Zumla, A. (2003). Manson’s Tropical Diseases. (21st ed). London: Saunders Ltd. Denyer, S. P., Hodges, N. A., Gorman, S. P., & Gilmore BF (2011) (eds),Hugo& Russell’s Pharmaceutical Microbiology (8th ed). Oxford: Willey-Blackwell publishing Eshuis J., & Manschot, P (1992).Communicable diseases, (1sted). Nairobi: AMREF GoT (2004).National Infection Prevention and Control (IPC) Guidelines for Healthcare Workers. Dar es Salaam: MOHSW GoT (2013).National Guidelines for Diagnosis and Treatment of Malaria. Dar es salaam: MOHSW GoT (2013).Standard Treatment Guidelines & National Essential Medicines List (4thed). Dar es Salaam: MOHSW Nordberg, E. (1999).Communicable Diseases, A Manual for Health Workers in Sub-Saharan Africa, Nairobi: AMREF Nordberg, E., Kingondu, T., & Mugambi, E., et al. (2008).Communicable Diseases. (4thed). Nairobi: AMREF. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Disease Control and Prevention topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Methods of Controlling Disease Transmitted by Animal Bites Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 5 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 5: Methods of Controlling Disease Transmitted by Animal Bites Total Session Time: 90 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe Common Diseases Transmitted by Animal Bites • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape Describe Methods for Controlling Diseases Transmitted by Animal Bites Resources Needed: • • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |30 minutes |Presentation |Common Diseases Transmitted by | | | |Buzzing |Animal Bites | |3 |30 minutes |Presentation |Methods for Controlling Rabies | | | |Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 |05 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | | 5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | | 6 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Common Diseases Transmitted by Animal Bites (30 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is the commonest disease transmitted by animal bites? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Common disease transmitted by animal bites Rabies is a disease that affects wild animals such as jackals, mongooses, fox and hyaenas. These animals may infect domestic animals such as dogs and cats. It is incidentally transmitted to human beings by a bite of a rabid animal, commonly domestic dogs or cats. • Rabies is an important public health problem because when no immediate action is taken after the bite by an infectious animal, the disease is fatal. • The virus has preference for the salivary glands and nervous tissue, finally causing encephalitis, and resulting in death. Clinical manifestations • Anxiety • Violent behavior • Seizures • Hallucinations • Depression • Paralysis of the limbs • Spasm of pharyngeal muscles • Fear of water (hydrophobia) STEP 3: Methods for Controlling Rabies (30minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 20 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |What are methods for controlling Rabies? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Methods for controlling Rabies • Notify authority because Rabies is a notifiable disease • Provide antirabies serum or vaccine to affected individuals • Give health education about preventive measures, such as regular immunization of dogs and cats (at least every 3 years) and killing of stray dogs • Pre-exposure vaccination to high risk individuals, such as veterinary officers STEP 4: Key Points (5 minutes) • Rabies is the most common human disease caused by animal bite • Death can be avoided if immediate action is taken for those who have been bitten by a suspect dog • Control measures include immunization of domestic dogs and individuals with high risk of exposure STEP 5: Evaluation (10 minutes) • What is the common disease transmitted by animal bites? • What are the methods for controlling Rabies? STEP 6: Assignment (10 minutes) |Activity: Take Home Assignment (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students in groups or individuals | | | |ASK the students to work on the following Assignment | | | |Prepare a presentation on Rabies, indicating transmission, clinical | |manifestation and control measures | | | |ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignments and submit | | | |REFER students to recommended reference | References Cook, G. Zumla, A. (2003). Manson’s Tropical Diseases. (21st ed). London: Saunders Ltd. Eshuis J, & Manschot, P (1992).Communicable diseases,(1st ed). Nairobi: AMREF GoT (2013) Standard Treatment Guidelines & National Essential Medicines List (4thed). Dar es Salaam: MOHSW Manson-Bahr PEC.,& Bell DR (2004). Manson’s Tropical Diseases (21sted). London. Bailliere Tindall. Nordberg, E., Kingondu T., Mugambi E., Musyoka L, & Otieno F (2007).Communicable Diseases(4thed). Nairobi: AMREF Nordberg, E., Kingondu, T., Mugambi, E., et al. (2008) Communicable Diseases. (4th ed.). Nairobi: AMREF. ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Disease Control and Prevention topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Measures to Improve Hygiene and Sanitation Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 6 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 6: Measures to Improve Hygiene and Sanitation Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Differentiate Hygiene from Sanitation Describe the Importance of Sanitation and Hygiene Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |30 minutes |Presentation |Hygiene and Sanitation | | | |Buzzing | | |3 |60 minutes |Presentation |Importance of Sanitation and Hygiene| | | |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |5 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |6 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Hygiene and Sanitation (30 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is the difference between hygiene and sanitation? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Hygiene – Things that you do to keep yourself and your surrounding clean to maintain good health. Few examples of hygiene practices are: • Personal hygiene • Food hygiene • Medical hygiene practices, e.g. o Sterilization of instruments used in surgical procedures o Use of protective clothing and barriers, such as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and gloves o Safe disposal of medical waste o Disinfection of reusable materials such as linen, pads, uniforms o Hand-washing before and after dispensing of medicines Sanitation – is promotion of health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes, treatment and proper disposal of sewage or wastewater. Few examples of sanitation are: • Management of human faeces • Proper handling of food (Food sanitation) • Environmental sanitation Differences between Sanitation and Hygiene |Sanitation |Hygiene | |Promotion of healthy living and |Cumulative group of practices | |good health by preventing human |perceived by group of people to be | |contact with waste and other forms |a way towards healthy living | |of organisms causing diseases. | | |Associated with human wastes, |Associated with human body | |environmental wastes and other | | |forms of wastes | | STEP 3: Importance of Sanitation and Hygiene (60 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 20 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the importance of sanitation and hygiene? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | Importance of Sanitation • Prevent variety of harmful or deadly bacteria from infecting people • Increase lifespan and improve of quality of life • Ensure safe living environment particularly in the rural setting • Providing measures to control diseases Importance of hygiene • Protects people against disease germs that are present in the environment • Promote health to “a state of maximum physical and mental well-being” rather than mere absence of disease • It promotes professional ethics STEP 4: Key Points (10 minutes) • Hygiene are practices done to maintain healthy living • Sanitation is promotion of health through prevention of human contact with wastesSanitation and hygiene are important for disease prevention STEP 5: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What is the difference between hygiene and sanitation? • What are the importances of sanitation and hygiene? STEP 6: Assignment (10 minutes) |Activity: Take Home Assignment (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students in groups or individuals | | | |ASK the students to work on the following Assignment | |Prepare a presentation to be delivered to the class indicating | |different hygienic measures practiced in their households. | | | |ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignments and submit | | | |REFER students to recommended reference | References Cook, G., & Zumla, A. (2003). Manson’s Tropical Diseases. (21sted.). London: Saunders Ltd. GoT (2004): National Infection Prevention and Control (IPC) Guidelines for Healthcare Workers. Dar es Salaam: MOHSW GoT (2013) Standard Treatment Guidelines & National Essential Medicines List (4thed). Dar es Salaam: MOHSW Nordberg, E. (1999): Communicable Diseases, A Manual for Health Workers in Sub-Saharan Africa, Nairobi: AMREF Nordberg, E., Kingondu, T., & Mugambi, E., et al. (2008) Communicable Diseases. (4thed). Nairobi: AMREF Nyamwaya, D. (1994): A Guide to Health Promotion through Water and Sanitation, Nairobi: AMREF World Health Organization (1999), Guidelines for safe disposal of unwanted pharmaceuticals in and after emergencies. Geneva: WHO ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Disease Control and Prevention topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Measures for Preventing Water Contamination Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 7 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 7: Measures for Preventing Water Contamination Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session studentsare expected to be able to: • Describe Sources of Water Supply • Identify Sources of Water Contamination • Describe Measures for Preventing Water Contamination Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |25 minutes |Presentation |Sources of Water Supply | | | |Buzzing | | |3 |30 minutes |Presentation |Sources of Water Contamination | | | |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation | Measures for Preventing Water | | | |Small Group |Contamination | | | |Discussion | | |5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |10 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Sources of Water Supply (25 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are sources of water supply? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Two Main Sources of Water Supply • Surface water • Ground water Surface Water • The most common source of water for most people • Located in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs, oceans, dams, and rain water and snow when it falls to the surface Advantages of surface water • Easily accessible • Obtained by hand or by simple pumps • Large lakes and rivers are permanent supplies of water throughout the year Disadvantages of surface water • Easily and frequently polluted as it runs over the ground where humans and animals wash and bathe in it • May be polluted by chemicals used in agriculture or industry • Surface water needs to be treated before it becomes drinking water Types of surface water Rain water • Obtained during the rainy season and collected from roofing or other collecting surfaces Advantages of rain water • Purest form of natural water if collected into clean, closed tanks • Does not need treatment when collected in a clean container Disadvantages of rain water • Does not contain essential elements (fluoride, iodine, selenium) Sea water • Water from the sea contains some salts o The water is concentrated by evaporation and become too salty for drinking Ground Water • Water which passes through permeable subsoil to the surface • Ground water can be accessed through: o Springs o Wells (shallow well, deep well or Artesian/bore-hole wells) ▪ Shallow well taps water above the first impermeable stratum ▪ Deep wells are those derived from water bearing strata below a least one impervious stratum ▪ Artesian wells are the result of ground pressure in an aquifer being released through a natural fault, or a bore-hole, so that water is forced to the surface of the ground Advantages of ground water sources o Underground water is usually clean, often plentiful and permanent o A reliable resource, especially in dry season o Not affected by evaporation o Ground water doesn’t need treatment as surface water Disadvantages of ground water sources o Limited resources, extractable quantities are often low compared to surface water o Ground water extraction is more expensive due to pump cost o Water from deep wells and deep springs usually has a lot of dissolved salts and other o Fertilizer and insecticides can get washed into aquifers via rain water and pollute ground water STEP 3: Sources of Water Contamination (30 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) | | | |ASKstudents to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the sources of water contamination? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Sources of Water Contamination • Industrial and mining activities o Industrial discharge of chemicals wastes and by products o Spillage of petroleum products o Acidic rain caused by industrial discharge of sulphur dioxide o Underground storage tank leakages o Heavy metals used in mining industries (mercury in gold mining) o Silt in storm water runoff from construction sites or cleared land • Agricultural activities o Farmers use of fertilizers and pesticides o Food processing wastes, including pathogens o Excess nutrients added by runoff containing detergents or fertilizers • Organic materials from human/animals/plants and other living organisms o The collecting surface for rain water may have leaves, insects, bird and animal faces o When water runs over the earth it may become contaminated with human or animal excreta and solid waste o Shallow wells may be contaminated by excreta and refuse being washed into them, if a latrine is near o Wells may also be contaminated by the use of dirty containers for drawing water, or by oil from the pump o Rivers, lakes or dams may be contaminated by bathing and/or urinating or defecating in the water o Even piped water may be contaminated from leaks in the pipes especially when these pass near foul water or dirty drains o Water may go bad if it is stored for too

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Water Treatment Methods Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 8 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 8: Water Treatment Methods Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Task By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Explain Water Treatment Methods Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Task | |2 |40 minutes |Presentation |Water Treatment Methods | | | |Group | | | | |Discussion | | |3 |5 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |4 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |5 |5 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Task (5 minutes) READ orASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Water Treatment Methods (40 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 20 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the methods used for treatment of contaminated water? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | The following are common methods for treating contaminated water (Purification) • Filtration • Disinfection • Boiling Filtration • Purification through sand reduces the bacterial content of the water by 85% to 90% • The two types of filters commonly used in community water supply are: o Slow sand filter o Rapid (Pressure) filter Slow filter • Requires little operational maintenance skills • Applicable in rural areas • Needs attention regularly because it is liable to become a breeding place for bacteria and water contamination Home-made sand filter • Filtration which is done when raw water passes through a fixed depth of arranged sand medium • All the suspended matter in water is dropped by the first few top layers of the sand grain • The clean water is collected at the bottom of the medium • It can be used in containers like barrels of steel or concrete or clay pots • The home-made sand filter can be used effectively in combination with chlorination Disinfection • It is killing of the organisms causing diseases o There are different methods used to disinfect water supplies, e.g. chlorination, silver treatment, ultra-violet radiation Water Chlorination • It is the final safe guard of the quality of water o The Chlorine should be applied in the water system in such a way that good mixing of the chlorine with water is ensured Boiling • Simplest way to treat a small quantity of water for at least 20 minutes • This will kill the organism and render the water harmless • Boiled water is tasteless but it is a safe rule to follow that all drinking water should be boiled to disinfect it STEP 6: Key Points (5minutes) • Water purification can be done by boiling, disinfection and filtration • A properly constructed and carefully maintained sand filter can remove most of the substances that cause turbidity and odour • It is important to prevent water from contamination STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What are the methods of treating contaminated water? • Why is it important to treat contaminated water? STEP 8: Assignment (5 minutes) |Activity: Take Home Assignment (10 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE individual assignment | | | |ASK the students to work individually on the following Assignment | |Prepare a list of common methods used to treat water in their | |household. | | | |ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignments and submit | | | |REFER students to recommended references | References Basset W.H. (1992). Clay’s Handbook of Environmental Health (16th ed). London: Chapman and Hall Nyamwaya, D. (1994): A Guide to Health Promotion through Water and Sanitation, Nairobi: AMREF Subi, S. (2008).Environmental Health Hand Book for Clinical Officer Students. Kilosa, Tanzania. Wood, C. H. (1997). Community Health (2nded). Nairobi: AMREF ← Previous TopicNext Topic →View all Disease Control and Prevention topicsOpen Complete Full Notes PDF / OFFLINE NOTES Unataka kutumiwa notes hizi kupitia WhatsApp?Kwa notes zilizopangiliwa vizuri kwa kusoma offline au PDF, bonyeza kitufe hapa chini. Ujumbe wenye Level, Semester, Module na Topic utaandaliwa moja kwa moja.TUMIWA NOTES WHATSAPP WhatsApp: 255620339260

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Water for Pharmaceutical Use Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 9 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 9: Water for Pharmaceutical Use Total Session Time: 60 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Task By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe Types of Water for Pharmaceutical Use Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Task | |2 | |Presentation |Types of Water for Pharmaceutical | | |40 minutes |Group |Use | | | |Discussion | | |3 |5 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |4 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |5 |5 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Task (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Types of Water for Pharmaceutical Use (40 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 20 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What are the types of water for pharmaceutical use? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Water is a widely used substance, raw material in the production, processing and formulation of pharmaceutical products • Impurities present in water may contaminate or react with intended product substances, resulting in hazards to health • Control of the quality of water throughout the production, storage and distribution processes, including microbiological and chemical quality, is very important • Assurance of quality to meet the acceptable standards of pharmaceutical products is essential • Microbial contamination in the production of pharmaceutical products can be minimized by proper designing of the system, periodic sanitization and by taking appropriate measures to prevent microbial proliferation • Different grades of water quality are required depending on the route of administration of the pharmaceutical products (Different grades of water can be found in pharmacopoeias and related documents) General principles for pharmaceutical water systems • Pharmaceutical water production, storage and distribution systems should be designed, installed, commissioned, qualified and maintained to ensure the reliable production of water of an appropriate quality. • The capacity of the system should be designed to meet the average and the peak flow demand of the current operation. o All systems, regardless of their size and capacity, should have appropriate recirculation and turnover to assure the system is well controlled chemically and microbiologically. • The use of the systems following initial validation (installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ) and performance qualification (PQ)) and after any planned and unplanned maintenance or modification work should be approved by the quality assurance (QA) department using change control documentation. • Water sources and treated water should be monitored regularly for chemical, microbiological and, as appropriate, endotoxin contamination. • There are four types of water used in pharmacy. o Portable water o Purified water o Water for preparation o Water for injection Drinking/Portable water • Portable water is water fleshly drawn from public mains supply • It does not include water from local storage tank which may be heavily contaminated with microorganisms • Portable water is suitable for preparation of pharmaceutical preparation for internal and external use • Drinking-water should be supplied under continuous positive pressure in a plumbing system free of any defects that could lead to contamination of any product • Drinking-water is unmodified except for limited treatment of the water derived from a natural or stored source e.g. springs, wells, rivers, lakes and the sea o The condition of the source water will dictate the treatment required to render it safe for human consumption (drinking) o Treatment includes desalinization, softening, removal of specific ions, particle reduction and antimicrobial treatment • It is the responsibility of the pharmaceutical manufacturer to assure that the source water supplying the purified water (PW) treatment system meets the appropriate drinking-water requirements • Drinking-water quality is covered by the WHO drinking-water guidelines, standards from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and other regional and national agencies. Purified water • This is prepared from suitable portable water by distillation or reverse osmosis system • If allowed to stand it may gain a high content of vegetative organisms • Water for pharmaceutical production must be freshly boiled and cooled before us Water for preparation • Portable or fleshly boiled and cooled purified water is recommended for preparations of pharmaceutical • Portable water is suitable only when it is drawn from a public supply (mains water) and is suitable for drinking • Water obtained from local storage tank or any other open source e.g. water from wells is unsuitable for preparation of pharmaceuticals. • Water for preparation is used for preparation of non-sterile products such as mixtures. Water for injections • This is pyrogen free distilled water or water produced by reverse osmosis system (ROS) Water for injection is sterilized immediately after collection and used for parenteral preparation and irrigation in surgical procedures STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes) • Production and uses of Water for pharmaceutical use should follow the requirements specified by Pharmacopoeias and other requirements by international and local authorities STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • What are the types of water for pharmaceutical use? • What are the uses of each type of water for pharmaceutical use? STEP 8: Assignment (5 minutes) |Activity: Take Home Assignment (10 minutes) | | | |ASK the students to work individually on the following Assignment |

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Methods for Safe Sewage Disposal Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 10 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 10: Methods for Safe Sewage Disposal Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Define Sewage • Describe the Importance of Safe Sewage Disposal • Describe Methods for Safe Sewage Disposal Resources Needed: • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction , Learning Tasks | |2 |15 minutes |Presentation |Definition of Sewage | | | |Buzzing | | |3 |30 minutes |Presentation |Importance of Safe Sewage Disposal | | | |Brain Storming| | |5 |45 minutes |Presentation |Methods for Safe Sewage Disposal | | | |Small Group | | | | |Discussion | | |6 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |8 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Definition of Sewage (15 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (5 minutes) | | | |ASKstudents to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is sewage? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Sewage is the mixture of liquid, faeces, toilet paper and food wastes produced by people o The liquid in sewage includes urine and wastewater which comes from the toilet, the kitchen, bathroom and laundry o Sewage contains lots of disease-causing germs and parasites o Sewage is treated to get rid of as much of the solid matter as possible o The remaining liquid is called effluent STEP 3: Importance of sewage disposal (30 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (15 minutes) | | | |ASK students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What is the importance of sewage disposal? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Sewage disposal is the process in which sewage is transported from inhabited areas to sewage treatment plants o This is important to prevent people from getting infection caused by microorganisms found in the sewage Importance of safe sewage disposal • Protects public health from diseases • Prevent water pollution from sewage contaminants • Remove sources of contaminants from the environment to make it safe. STEP 4: Methods for Sewage Disposal (450 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 45 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | | | |What are the methods for safe sewage disposal? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 15 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | There are main two types of sewage disposal systems which are: • On-site systems • Sewage or effluent systems On-site sewage disposal systems • It treats the sewage in a septic tank so that most of the sewage becomes effluent and is disposed of in an area close to the house or buildings o Example of an on-site disposal system consists of a septic tank and leach drains o All the liquid waste from the toilet, bathroom, laundry and sink goes into pipes which carry it to a septic tank o The effluent from the tank is then disposed of through effluent disposal drains often referred to as leach or French drains o Both of these methods of disposing of liquid waste are on-site disposal systems. They must be installed and maintained properly. In these systems, the effluent is soaked into the surrounding soil. [pic] Figure 10.1: Plan view (top) of an on-site sewage disposal system On-site disposal systems cannot be installed in all situations. For example, they cannot be installed: • In areas that flood regularly • In areas that have a high water table (that is, where the underground water is close to the surface) • Where the amount of wastewater to be disposed of is large • Near to drinking water supplies A sewage or effluent (wastewater) system • It disposes of the effluent from a community at a central place usually called a sewage lagoon or effluent pond • In this method the effluent from the community is carried by large pipes to the lagoon. • These pipes serve all the houses and other buildings in the community [pic] Fig 10.2: Plan view of a wastewater disposal system • Before disposal, the sewage is treated. This involves holding the sewage in a closed or open space for a few days to allow fluids and solids to separate and bacterial action to turn the sewage into safer form • The sewage can be treated: o In a septic tank at each building o Just before the lagoon in a large septic tank or macerator system, or o In the lagoon itself STEP 6: Key Points (10 minutes) • Sewage is a mixture of excreta, water and other materials • Sewage disposal is important to make the environment free from pollutants and diseases • There are two main methods for sewage disposal; on-site and sewage system. STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes) • Why is the meaning of sewage? • What is the importance of safesewage disposal?

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Health Hazards of Poor Housing and Ventilation Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 11 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 11: Health Hazards of Poor Housing and Ventilation Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Describe health hazards of poor housing • Explain types of ventilation • Explain importance of proper ventilation in various settings Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers Projector • Computer and LCD Projector • Worksheet 11.1 Diseases caused by poor housing SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |30 minutes |Presentation |Health Hazards of Poor Housing | | | |Brain storming| | |3 |30 minutes |Presentation | Types of Ventilation in Various | | | |Buzzing |Settings | |4 |30 minutes |Presentation |Importance of Ventilation in Various| | | |Small Group |Settings | | | |Discussion | | |5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |6 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |7 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Health Hazards of Poor Housing (30 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) | | | |ASKstudents to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the hazards of poor housing? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | • Housing conditions play a crucial role in the control of many diseases, especially in the transmission of communicable diseases • House can both protect and facilitate diseases Definition of terms • House – The usual dwelling place of the family • Housing – The enclosed and adjoining open space and all structural components making up those spaces • Healthful housing – Housing which permits individuals of all ages to conduct usual household activities without putting excessive burden upon any organ of the body Basic requirements for a house • Adequately shelters people from heat, cold, damp, animals, insects and invaders • Able to be kept in good repair • Adequate elevation, ventilation and water supply • Adequate size and spacing for occupant(s) • Good drainage • Space for preparation, cooking and storage of food • Room for fuel storage • Adequate means to dispose of refuse and human waste • Proximity to roads, neighbours and other centres of population • Good natural and artificial lighting Health hazards of poor housing • A combination of dampness, lack of light, poor ventilation and overcrowding will contribute to the spread of airborne droplet infection • A dirt floor and walls and unscreened windows permit the entry and breeding of flies, bedbugs and mosquitoes which contributes to the spread of vector-borne diseases • Cooking fires placed on the floor are hazardous to small children • A range of social problems may be associated with poor housing and living conditions including depression and alcohol abuse • Excessive noise and overcrowding has an influence on mental disorders • Crowded, cramped housing conditions facilitate the spread of airborne (communicable) infections such as measles and tuberculosis • The use of dirty household fuels for cooking and heating can cause respiratory problems • Dirty water and poor sanitation are associated with numerous illnesses STEP 3: Types of Ventilation (30 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What are major types of ventilation? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Definition of Ventilation • The process of removing polluted, stale, moisture laden, indoor air and replacing it with fresh outdoor (often dryer) air Types of Ventilation • Natural ventilation – Natural movement of air entering and leaving openings such as windows, doors, and roof ventilators as well as through cracks and crevices of buildings Types of natural ventilation o Through ventilation – Windows placed on opposite sides of house, air enters in one window and leaves through the other window o Cross ventilation – One window is provided and the other window is provided adjacent, air enters and leaves through the adjacent window o Back to back ventilation – Window is placed only on one side of the wall, Air enters and leaves in the same window. This type of ventilation is not recommended in public health • Mechanical ventilation – The movement of air by mechanical means o Wall fan and air conditioning units are examples of mechanical ventilation [pic] STEP 4: Importance of Good Ventilation (30 minutes) |Activity: Small Group Discussion ( 20 minutes) | | | |DIVIDE students into small manageable groups | | | |ASK students to discuss on the following question | |What is the importance of good ventilation? | | | |ALLOW students to discuss for 10 minutes | | | |ALLOW few groups to present and the rest to add points not mentioned | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below | • Good ventilation provides enough air (oxygen) required for normal physiological function in the body • Proper ventilation prevents air pollutants from affecting the health of an individual • Good ventilation helps in removing unwanted smells, such as from cooking or pets • Ventilation controls how much moisture is

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Air Purification in Pharmaceutical Settings Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 12 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 12: Air Purification in Pharmaceutical Settings Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Students Learning Task By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Explain process and application of air purification in pharmaceutical settings Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board, chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |05 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Task | |2 |85 minutes |Presentation |Process and Application of Air | | | |Buzzing |Purification in Pharmaceutical | | | | |Settings | |3 |10 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |4 |10 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP 1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Task (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning task and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: The Process and Application of Air Purification in Pharmaceutical Settings (85 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is air purification? | |What are the methods used in the process of air purification? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pair to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Definition of Air purification – It is a process of cleansing the air from impurities and microorganisms • The process of air purification involve different methods • The methods used in the process of air purification are applied in a sterile manufacturing room to provide sterile condition to perform sterile pharmaceutical production, as explained below: Sterilization by radiation • Means energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves/ particles. The ionizing radiations include Alpha, Beta, Gamma and X-ray. In a sufficient dose, these radiations are lethal to all cells, including bacterial spores, which are generally more resistant than vegetative cells • Bacterial species differ in their sensitivity to ionizing radiations and the degree of resistance varies during the growth cycle • It is used for the commercial sterilization of large amounts of pre- packed single use items such as plastic syringes and catheters Laminar Air flow carbinate • Is a system of circulating filtered air in parallel-flowing planes in hospitals or in the health care facilities • The system reduces the risk of airborne contamination and exposure to chemical pollutants in hospital pharmacies • It is also used in other areas such as surgical theatres, food preparation areas and laboratories Mechanical/ Forced ventilation • Outside air is delivered indoors typically with fans, which draw air from outside and forces it through ducts to the place where occupants are located • Mechanical ventilation can exacerbate infiltration and/or exfiltration • There are 3 types of mechanical ventilation as follows: o Exhaust (vacuum) system: Fans draw air out of the building in openings high up in the outside walls which is replaced by fresh air through windows and other inlets ▪ Local exhaust ventilation is absolutely required when the source have dust, exhaust fumes, solvent vapors, lead fumes, and acid mist, all known as toxic or corrosive contaminants.The fans may be placed directly in windows or outside walls or in ducts which lead the air outside. It is a system that is useful for the removal of dust, smoke and fumes in some factories o Pressure (propulsion) system: Unlike the exhaust system, this forces the air into a building and therefore control of entering air is possible, the fresh entering air displaces the used up air. The advantage of this method is that the source of air-entry can be controlled and its purity thereby ensured. The air can be filtered, warmed or cooled as required o Balanced system: This is a combination of the exhaust and pressure system. Air is drawn in through ducts by means of a centrifugal fan and extracted at suitable points by exhaust fan ▪ It facilitates good distribution of fresh air by placing supply and exhaust vents in appropriate places ▪ Balanced ventilation systems are appropriate for all climates; however, because they require two duct and fan systems, they are usually expensive ▪ Air conditioning is generally employed with this type of ventilation and the temperature and humidity can be controlled ▪ It is suitable for factories where a control of humidity and temperature is necessary to the processes being carried out Reasons for using Mechanical/ Forced ventilation o To keep flammable gases and vapours below the lower flammable limit (LFL). o To keep the air movement at a certain level so that the air stress can be reduced o To keep toxic contaminants at or below certain concentrations o To reduce odours o To control microorganisms, dusts and other particulates o To limit carbon dioxide build-up STEP 3: Key Points (10 minutes) • Air purification is a process which removes contaminants from the air in a room. Air purification methods are used in pharmaceutical setting to remove impurities such as carbon-dioxide from air before processing • Dust, pollen, pet dander, mold spores, mite faeces, smoke particles and volatile organic compounds are some sources of contaminants that may affect personnel and products in pharmaceutical setting • Air purifiers are very important in capturing a greater number of bacterial and virus particulates. They are used to reduce the concentration of these airborne contaminants STEP 4: Evaluation (10 minutes) • What are the reasons for air purification in

NTA Level 4 • Semester 1 • PST04102 Using Antiseptics and Disinfectants Disease Control and Prevention • Source Session/Topic 13 Full source-text version: all educational wording from the extracted learning source is retained; only presenter/tutor metadata and web-layout noise are removed, while formatting is improved for readability. Session 13: Using Antiseptics and Disinfectants Total Session Time: 120 minutes + 2 hours Assignment Prerequisites • None Learning Tasks By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: • Differentiate Between Antisepsis and Disinfection • Classify Agents Used for Antisepsis and Disinfection • List Characteristics of an Ideal Disinfectant and Antiseptic • Describe Uses of Various Antiseptics and Disinfectants Resources Needed • Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape • Black/white board chalk and whiteboard markers • Computer and LCD Projector SESSION OVERVIEW |Step |Time |Activity/ |Content | | | |Method | | |1 |5 minutes |Presentation |Introduction, Learning Tasks | |2 |20 minutes |Presentation | Antisepsis and Disinfection | | | |Buzzing | | |3 |45 minutes |Presentation | Agents used for Antisepsis and | | | |Brain storming|Disinfection | |4 |20 minutes |Presentation | Characteristics of an Ideal | | | | |Disinfectant and Antiseptic | |5 |10 minutes |Presentation |Uses of Various Antiseptics and | | | | |Disinfectants | |6 |5 minutes |Presentation |Key Points | |7 |5 minutes |Presentation |Evaluation | |8 |10 minutes |Presentation |Assignment | SESSION CONTENTS STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes) READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify ASK students if they have any questions before continuing STEP 2: Antisepsis and Disinfection (20 minutes) |Activity: Buzzing (10 minutes) | | | |ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 | |minutes | | | |What is the difference between Antisepsis and Disinfection? | | | |ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not | |mentioned | | | |WRITE their response on the flip chart/board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below | Antisepsis – Destruction or inhibition of microorganisms on living tissues, to prevent infection Antiseptic – A substance that counters sepsis by destroying or inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms • Antiseptics are generally applied to living tissues in the form of wet dressings, creams, ointments or other substances that involve prolonged contact with the body Disinfection – Is the process of removing microorganisms, including pathogens, from the surfaces of inanimate objects Disinfectant – An agent that prevents infection by destroying or removing pathogenic microorganisms • The term is confined to substances used for the treatment of inanimate objects • In practice, both antiseptics and disinfectants are used to destroy or inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms in the vegetative form STEP 3: Agents used for Antisepsis and Disinfection (45 minutes) |Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes) | | | |Ask students to brainstorm on the following question: | | | |What are the agents used for Antisepsis and Disinfection? | | | |ALLOW few students to respond | | | |WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board | | | |CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below | Antiseptics Ethanol Mode of action • Has a bactericidal action against most vegetative organisms at a concentration of 60% and 95%, but is not effective against bacterial spores Therapeutic uses • Evaporating lotion used for hand and skin cleaning • Surgical treatment for various skin lesions • Prevention of bed sores and diminishing sweating (reduce temperature) • Used as solvent in different pharmaceutical preparations • A concentration of 70% either alone or with chlorohexidine or iodine for disinfection of skin before surgical procedures Chlorhexidine Mode of action • An antiseptic which is effective against a wide range of vegetative gram- positive and gram-negative bacteria, although it has no activity against acid fast bacteria, bacterial spores and some viruses Therapeutic uses • Chlorohexidine is used in disinfectant solutions, creams, gels and lozenges • It is also used in various concentrations for disinfection in the following conditions: o Chlorhexidine 0.5% in 70% ethanol for the preoperative disinfection of the skin o Chlorhexidine 0.05% solution in glycerin for urethral irrigation and catheter lubrication o Chlorhexidine 0.02% solution for bladder irrigation o Chlorhexidine 1% cream for use in obstetrics o Chlorhexidine 0.01% as the diacetate for preservation of eye drops Cetrimide Mode of action • A quaternary ammonium disinfectant that has bacterial activity against both gram- positive and gram-negative organisms Therapeutic uses • Cetrimide 0.5% solution for preoperative skin disinfection • Cetrimide 0.05% to 1% is used for the cleansing of polythene tubing and catheters, but time of immersion should not exceed 30 minutes • Cetrimide in higher concentrations of 15 to 35 is used in shampoos to remove scales in seborrhea • Cetrimide 1.5% with chlorhexidine gluconate 0.15% is often used as a general purpose disinfectant Povidone Iodine Mode of action • Acts by inhibiting enzymes essential to microbial metabolism • It kills on contact a broad spectrum of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and yeasts Therapeutic uses • Skin antiseptics and germicidal skin cleansers • Disinfectant for wounds, abrasions and insect bites • Medicated spray for wounds • Antidandruff shampoos • Medicated adhesive plasters • Gargles and throat lozenges • Vaginal gels and douches Disinfectants Sodium Hypochlorite • A solution 8% to about 18% of chlorine is prepared by absorption of chlorine in sodium hydroxide solution to give sodium hypochlorite Mode of action • Sodium hypochlorite solutions release chlorine gas which kills most pathogenic organisms at neutral pH Therapeutic uses • Rapid disinfection of hard surfaces • Disinfection of food • Disinfection of dairy equipment and babies’ feeding bottles • o Solutions containing up to 0.05% of available chlorine are suitable for use on skin and wounds Glutaral Mode of action • Glutaral is an effective disinfectant against vegetative forms of gram- positive and gram-negative bacteria • It is also effective against acid-fast bacteria, bacterial spores,