Diagnostic Radiology Notes

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Bone Tissue CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Bone Tissue using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Bone is a hard and rigid tissue that forms the bony skeleton of the body. The bone is highly vascularized, and in living conditions the bone appears pinkish in colour Types of Bones Parts of the long bone Bone formation Functions of bones 3.Movement; when muscles contract, they pull on bones to produce movement. BONE TISSUE Bone is a hard and rigid tissue that forms the bony skeleton of the body. Bone supports the body weight and provides attachment to muscles whereas act as lever for movements and provides protection to organs. Inside the bone there are spaces, which are filled with the bone marrow that produce red blood cells, platelets and cells of the immune system. Cells of the immune system produced in bone marrow include monocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells, neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. The only difference with other connective tissues is that its ground substance is made up of inorganic salts, mostly calcium ions. The bone is highly vascularized, and in living conditions the bone appears pinkish in colour Bone consists of: Cells Fibers Ground substances Bone Cells; The bone contains four types of cells namely the osteoprogenator cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and the osteoclasts. Bone Matrix (Intercellular substance);It is made up of the collagen fibers (osteocollagenous fibers), amorphous ground substance and inorganic salts which constitute about 74% of bone mass. Types of Bones 1.Long bones e.g. femur, tibia and fibula 2.Short bones e.g. carpals (wrist bones) 3.Flat bones e.g. sternum, ribs and most skull bones (skull) 4.Irregular bones e.g. vertebrae and some skull bones 5.Sesamoid bones e.g. patella (kneecap) Parts of the long bone A long bone is one that has greater length than width. A typical long bone consists of the following parts: The diaphysis is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main portion of the bone. The epiphyses (singular is epiphysis) are the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The metaphyses (singular is metaphysis) are the regions between the diaphysis and the epiphyses. Bone formation Bones formation occurs in four main stages which are; 1.Development of the ossification canters (special membrane) 2.Formation of bone matrix 3.Deposition of minerals or calcification 4.Formation of trabeculae and appearance of periosteum Functions of bones 1.Support,the skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues providing attachment points for the tendons of most skeletal muscles. 2.Protection; The skeleton protects the most important internal organs from injury for example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones) protect the spinal cord, and the ribcage protects the heart and lungs. 3.Movement; when muscles contract, they pull on bones to produce movement. 4.Mineral homeostasis (storage and release);Bone tissue stores several minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, which contribute to the strength of bone. 5.Blood cell production; bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a process called hemopoiesis. ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Brain Anatomy and Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Brain Anatomy and Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Brain Anatomy and Functions > 1 Overview The human brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and soul. Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many things governed by the brain. Protected within the skull, the brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing – often many at one time. It assembles the messages in a way that has meaning for us, and can store that information in our memory. The brain controls our thoughts, memory and speech, movement of the arms and legs, and the function of many organs within our body. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain. Brain The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem (Fig. 1). Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement. Cerebellum: is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance. Brainstem: acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. Right brain – left brain The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2). They are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other. Anatomy of the Brain Figure 1. The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum cerebellum, and brainstem. Figure 2. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. The two sides are connected fibers corpus callosum.> 2 Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. If a stroke occurs on the right side of the brain, your left arm or leg may be weak or paralyzed. Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic, and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about 92% of people. Lobes of the brain The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures, which divide the brain into lobes. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital (Fig 3). Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas that serve very specific functions. It’s important to understand that each lobe of the brain does not function alone. There are very complex relationships between the lobes of the brain and between the right and left hemispheres. Language In general, the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language and speech and is called the "dominant" hemisphere. The right hemisphere plays a large part in interpreting visual information and spatial processing. In about one third of people who are left-handed, speech function may be located on the right side of the brain. Left-handed people may need special testing to determine if their speech center is on the left or right side prior to any surgery in that area. Aphasia is a disturbance of language affecting speech production, comprehension, reading or writing, due to brain injury. The type of aphasia depends on the brain area damaged. Broca’s area: lies in the left frontal lobe (Fig 3). If this area is damaged, one may have difficulty moving the tongue or facial muscles to produce the sounds of speech. A person can still read and understand spoken language but has difficulty in speaking and writing (i.e. forming letters and words, doesn't write within lines) – called Broca's aphasia. Wernicke's area: lies in the left temporal lobe (Fig 3). Damage to this area causes Wernicke's aphasia. The person may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new words. They can make speech sounds, however they have difficulty understanding speech and are therefore unaware of their mistakes. Figure 3. The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Frontal lobe (blue) Personality, behavior, emotions Judgment, planning, problem solving Speech: speaking and writing (Broca’s area) Body movement (motor strip) Intelligence, concentration, self awareness Parietal lobe (orange) Interprets language, words Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip) Interprets vision, hearing, sensory and memory Spatial and visual perception Occipital lobe (purple) Interprets vision (color, light, movement) Temporal lobe (green) Understanding language (Wernicke’s area) Memory Hearing Sequencing and organization> 3 Cortex The surface of the cerebrum is called the cortex. It has a folded appearance with hills and valleys. The cortex contains 16 billion neurons (the cerebellum has 70 billion = 86 billion total) that are arranged in specific layers. The nerve cell bodies color the cortex grey-brown giving it its name – gray matter (Fig. 4). Beneath the cortex are long nerve fibers (axons) that connect brain areas to each other — called white matter. The folding of the cortex increases the brain’s surface area allowing more neurons to fit inside the skull and enabling higher functions. Each fold is called a gyrus, and each groove between folds is called a sulcus (Fig. 4). There are names for the folds and grooves that help define specific brain regions. Deep structures Pathways called white matter tracts connect areas of the cortex to each other. Messages can travel from one gyrus to another, from one

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Cardiovascular System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Cardiovascular System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic The Cardiovascular System: The Heart Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS BLOOD VESSELS ARTERIES VEIN CAPILLARIES The Cardiovascular System: The Heart Harrison, MD Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Heart Anatomy Approximately the size of your fist Location Superior surface of diaphragm Left of the midline Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior to the sternum Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Heart Anatomy Figure 18.1 Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Coverings of the Heart: Anatomy Pericardium – a double-walled sac around the heart composed of: A superficial fibrous pericardium A deep two-layer serous pericardium The parietal layer lines the internal surface of the fibrous pericardium The visceral layer or epicardium lines the surface of the heart They are separated by the fluid-filled pericardial cavity Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Coverings of the Heart: Physiology The Function of the Pericardium: Protects and anchors the heart Prevents overfilling of the heart with blood Allows for the heart to work in a relatively friction-free environment Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Heart Wall Epicardium – visceral layer of the serous pericardium Myocardium – cardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of the heart Fibrous skeleton of the heart – crisscrossing, interlacing layer of connective tissue Endocardium – endothelial layer of the inner myocardial surface Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Vessels returning blood to the heart include: Superior and inferior venae cavae Right and left pulmonary veins Vessels conveying blood away from the heart include: Pulmonary trunk, which splits into right and left pulmonary arteries Ascending aorta (three branches) – Brachiocephalic Left common carotid Subclavian arteries External Heart: Major Vessels of the Heart (Anterior View) Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Arteries – right and left coronary (in atrioventricular groove), marginal, circumflex, and anterior interventricular arteries Veins – small cardiac, anterior cardiac, and great cardiac veins External Heart: Vessels that Supply/Drain the Heart (Anterior View) Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System External Heart: Anterior View Figure 18.4b Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Vessels returning blood to the heart include: Right and left pulmonary veins Superior and inferior venae cavae Vessels conveying blood away from the heart include: Aorta Right and left pulmonary arteries External Heart: Major Vessels of the Heart (Posterior View) Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Arteries – right coronary artery (in atrioventricular groove) and the posterior interventricular artery (in interventricular groove) Veins – great cardiac vein, posterior vein to left ventricle, coronary sinus, and middle cardiac vein External Heart: Vessels that Supply/Drain the Heart (Posterior View) Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System External Heart: Posterior View Figure 18.4d Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Gross Anatomy of Heart: Frontal Section Figure 18.4e Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Atria of the Heart Atria are the receiving chambers of the heart Each atrium has a protruding auricle Pectinate muscles mark atrial walls Blood enters right atria from superior and inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus Blood enters left atria from pulmonary veins Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Ventricles of the Heart Ventricles are the discharging chambers of the heart Papillary muscles and trabeculae carneae muscles mark ventricular walls Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Myocardial Thickness and Function Thickness of myocardium varies according to the function of the chamber Atria are thin walled, deliver blood to adjacent ventricles Ventricle walls are much thicker and stronger right ventricle supplies blood to the lungs (little flow resistance) left ventricle wall is the thickest to supply systemic circulation Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Thickness of Cardiac Walls Myocardium of left ventricle is much thicker than the right. Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Pathway of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs Right atrium  tricuspid valve  right ventricle Right ventricle  pulmonary semilunar valve  pulmonary arteries  lungs Lungs  pulmonary veins  left atrium Left atrium  bicuspid valve  left ventricle Left ventricle  aortic semilunar valve  aorta Aorta  systemic circulation Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Pathway of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs Figure 18.5 Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Coronary Circulation Coronary circulation is the functional blood supply to the heart muscle itself Collateral routes ensure blood delivery to heart even if major vessels are occluded Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Coronary Circulation: Arterial Supply Figure 18.7a Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Coronary Circulation: Venous Supply Figure 18.7b Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Heart Valves Heart valves ensure unidirectional blood flow through the heart Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie between the atria and the ventricles AV valves prevent backflow into the atria when ventricles contract Chordae tendineae anchor AV valves to papillary muscles Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Heart Valves Semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles Aortic semilunar valve lies between the left ventricle and the aorta Pulmonary semilunar valve lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Heart Valves Figure 18.8a, b Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Microscopic Anatomy of Heart Muscle Cardiac muscle is striated, short, fat, branched, and interconnected The connective tissue endomysium acts as both tendon and insertion Intercalated discs anchor cardiac cells together and allow free passage of ions Heart muscle behaves as a functional syncytium InterActive Physiology®: Cardiovascular System: Anatomy Review: The Heart PLAY STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System BLOOD VESSELS Made up of three layer -tunica externa-compose of loose fibrous connective tissue -tunica media-smooth muscles -tunica intima-endothelial cells DIFFERENCES BTN VEIN AND ARTERY. Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System ARTERIES CARRIES BLOOD AWAY OF THE HEART Large Thick-walled, Muscular Elastic Oxygenated blood Exception Pulmonary Artery Carried under great pressure Steady pulsating Arterioles: smaller vessels, enter tissue Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System VEIN Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System Carries blood that contains waste and CO2 Exception pulmonary vein Blood not under much pressure Valves to prevent much gravity pull Venules: larger than capillaries CAPILLARIES Smallest vessel Microscopic Walls one cell thick Nutrients

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Cell Injury Adaptation And Cell Death CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Cell Injury Adaptation And Cell Death using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic LEARNING OBJECTIVES ….. CELLULAR ADAPTATIONs TO STIMULI Pathologic adaptations: are responses to stress that allow cells to modulate their structure and function and thus escape injury. Five (5) types of cellular adaptations 1.Atrophy Cell Injury Adaptation And Cell Death Causes of atrophy 2.HYPERTROPHY 3.HYPERPLASIA Examples: (physiological hyperplasia) Pathological hyperplasia is caused by excessive hormonal stimulation or growth factors on target cells. 4.METAPLASIA 5.DYSPLASIA Examples of dysplasia CELL INJURY Types of cell death Examples of physiological apoptosis Adaptation mechanisms and Cell injury LEARNING OBJECTIVES Understand the concept of cell and tissue adaptation: 1.Hypertrophy (increase in size of cell) 2.Hyperplasia (increase in number of cells) 3.Atrophy (shrinkage in size of cell) 4.Metaplasia (change of shape of cell) 5.Dysplasia (disorderly growth) ….. Describe the causes of cell injury Know types of cell death & their clinical examples: 1.Apoptosis= programmed death (physiologic & pathologic) 2.Necrosis= group cell death (pathologic) Differentiate between apoptosis & necrosis CELLULAR ADAPTATIONs TO STIMULI Adaptations are reversible changes in the number, size, phenotype, metabolic activity, or functions of cells in response to changes in their environment. Physiologic adaptations: Usually represent responses of cells to normal stimulation by hormones or endogenous chemical mediators (e.g. the hormone-induced enlargement of the breast and uterus during pregnancy). Pathologic adaptations: are responses to stress that allow cells to modulate their structure and function and thus escape injury. Such adaptations can take several distinct forms. Five (5) types of cellular adaptations 1.Atrophy Hypertrophy Hyperplasia Metaplasia Dysplasia Types of cellular adaptations…. 1.Atrophy It is a decrease in the size (shrinkage) of the cell, tissue or organ which is brought by decrease in substances within cells. Atrophic cells may have diminished function but are not dead. Atrophy as other cell adaptations can be classified as either physiological or pathological. Physiologic atrophy occurs with aging and involved essentially all organs in the body Examples: 1.Decrease in breast glandular tissues after menopause 2.Decrease in size of uterus after child birth (parturition) 3.Decrease in size of brain tissue of advanced aged man 4.The decrease of thymus tissue after puberty which remains essentially as fibrous tissue. Cell Injury Adaptation And Cell Death Pathological atrophy occur as a result of lack of inadequate nutrients (ischaemia), innervations of an organ, disuse of an organ (lack of exercise after long term of inability) and loss of endocrine stimulation. Example: Hypogonadism Causes of atrophy A decreased workload (e.g. immobilization of a limb to permit healing of a fracture) Loss of innervations Diminished blood supply Inadequate nutrition Loss of endocrine stimulation Aging ( leads to senile atrophy) 2.HYPERTROPHY Hypertrophy and hyperplasia can also occur together, and obviously both result in an enlarged (hypertrophic) organ. Examples: 1.The massive physiologic enlargement of the uterus during pregnancy occurs as a consequence of estrogen-stimulated smooth muscle hypertrophy and smooth muscle hyperplasia. Increase in muscle mass in weightlifter 3.Pathological hypertrophy can also be demostrated in the heart. Myocardium subjected to persistent increased load, as in hypertension or with a stenosis valve, adapts by undergoing hypertrophy-an increase in the size of the individual cells and ultimately the entire heart-to generate the required higher contractile force. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 3.HYPERPLASIA It is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue usually results in increased size of the organ or tissue. ! Although hypertrophy and hyperplasia are two distinct processes, both frequently occur together and they may be triggered by the same external stimulus. ! Physiologic hyperplasia can be divided into :- -Hormonal hyperplasia which increases the functional capacity of a tissue when needed. -Compensatory hyperplasia which increases tissue mass after damage or partial resection. Examples: (physiological hyperplasia) 1.Increase in breast glandular tissue during pregnant 2.When a liver is partially resected, mitotic activity in the remaining cells begins as early as 12 hours later, eventually restoring the liver to its normal weight. After restoration of the liver mass, cell proliferation is turned off by various growth inhibitors. Pathological hyperplasia is caused by excessive hormonal stimulation or growth factors on target cells. Examples 3.Benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) 4.Endometrial hyperplasia Hyperplasia is an adaptive response in cells capable of replication. Hyperplasia is also an important response of connective tissue cells in wound healing, in which proliferating fibroblasts and blood vessels aid in repair. 4.METAPLASIA Is a reversible change in which one mature differentiated cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by another mature differentiated cell type. In this type of cellular adaptation, cells sensitive to a particular stress are replaced by other cell types better able to withstand the stressful environment. Examples: 1.Epithelial metaplasia is exemplified by the squamous change that occurs in the respiratory epithelium in habitual cigarette smokers. The normal ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the trachea and bronchi are focally or widely replaced by stratified squamous epithelial cells. 2.Vitamin A deficiency may also induce squamous metaplasia in the respiratory epithelium. Squamous metaplasia in respiratory epithelia of a cigarette smoker Cell Injury Adaptation And Cell Death However, the influences that induce metaplastic transformation, if persistent, may predispose to malignant transformation of the epithelium. o In a common form of lung cancer, squamous metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium often coexists with cancers composed of malignant squamous cells. 5.DYSPLASIA Means disordered growth. Dysplasia is encountered principally in epithelia and is characterized by loss in the uniformity of individual cells as well as a loss in their architectural orientation. Examples of dysplasia Achondroplasia Fibrous dysplasia Cervical dysplasia (can become cervical cancer) Fibrous dysplasia Achondroplasia CELL INJURY Cell injury or cell demage refers to a variety of changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external or internal environmental changes. When cells are injured, one of two patterns must dominate: reversible cell injury leading to adaptation of the cell and tissue, or irreversible cell

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Cell Structure And Its Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Cell Structure And Its Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic CELLS AND IT’S STRUCTURES CELL STRUCTURE Cell membrane molecules and their functions C. Proteins Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins NUCLEUS Each cell has fixed number of Functions of the nucleus and chromosomes. Diagram of nucleus and chromosomes. CYTOPLASM CELL ORGANELLES Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough) Cilia and Lysosomes Centrioles FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL Cell Structure And Its Functions CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISMS. 1. DIFFUSION 3. FACILITATED DIFFUSION 5. FILTRATION CELLS AND IT’S STRUCTURES What is cell? Cell is the smallest basic unit of life. These are building blocks of human body. Microorganisms such as amoebas and bacteria are single-celled that function independently. Human cells work together and each of them function independently. These cells vary in size, shape and functions. All cells are made of water, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. CELL STRUCTURE Despite their differences in size, shape and functions, cells have several similar structures; a cell membrane, a nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell organelles ( Ribosomes, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes, vacuole, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi body, cilia and microvilli). CELL MEMBRANE Are also called plasma membrane, Is the thin semi-permeable membrane of the cells that controls movement of substances in and out of the cell. It also maintain the shape of the cell and keep it intact. It is made up of a double layer of lipids (fats) and proteins. Cell membrane molecules and their functions Cell membrane is made up of three organic molecules ie, Phospholipids Cholesterol and Proteins. A. Phospholipids Organic molecule made of diglycerides that forms a bilayer or double layer and makes up most of the membrane. Permit lipid-soluble materials to easily enter orleave the cell by diffusion through the cell membrane. B. Cholesterol Play role by decreasing the fluidity of the membrane, thus making it more stable. C. Proteins Functions of proteins…. Proteins form channels or pores to permit passage of materials such as water or ions. Proteins are carrier enzymes or transporters that also help substances enter the cell. Acts as antigenic markers that identify the cells of an individual as “self.” Some proteins serves as hormone receptors Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins Surrounds outside of ALL cells Controls what enters or leaves the cell Living layer Outside of cell Inside of cell (cytoplasm) Cell membrane Proteins Protein channel Lipid bilayer Carbohydrate chains NUCLEUS Is the control center of the cell Nucleus is also called the brain of the cell without it cell would die. The nucleus contains genetic information called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These genetic information (DNA) is arranged in threads called chromosomes. Every normal cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (total 46). Surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear membrane. NUCLEOLUS This is a small spherical body made of DNA, RNA and protein The nucleoli form a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA which becomes part of ribosomes (a cell organelle) involved in protein synthesis. Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that carry genes Genes control cell characteristics Functions of the nucleus and chromosomes. Controls the cells functions Store for DNA and / RNA Site for transcription- DNA is transcribed into mRNA Nucleolus makes ribosomes for protein synthesis Centre for cellular growth For cell division Control enzyme synthesis Play role in reproduction and Controls hereditary traits Diagram of nucleus and chromosomes. Inside nucleus Disappears when cell divides Makes ribosomes that make proteins CYTOPLASM Is the gel like fluid found within the cell that suspend cell organelles Made up of water and dissolved substances like gases, glucose, waste, salts and hormones. Cytosol Is the water portion of cytoplasm, and many chemical reactions take place within it. Nucleoplasm Is a gel like fluid founs within the nucleus of the cell. CELL ORGANELLES Cell organelles are intracellular structures bounded by their own membrane with specific functions in metabolism. Mitochondria Are oval or spherical organelles bounded by double membrane where energy (ATP) production takes place. Its also called power house of the cell. This energy is provided through a process called respiration. Site of aerobic cell respiration ( ATP production) Ribosomes Are very small structures made of protein and ribosomal RNA. Some are found on the surface of rough Endoplasmic reticulum, while others float freely within the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough) This consists of a network of tiny tubes, or channels running throughout the cytoplasm. These act as a passageways for transport of materials within the cell ER associate with ribosomes in protein production and transport. Site for most enzyme activities. Golgi Body This is a large organelle responsible for processing proteins and lipids. These may include hormones, or other proteins required elsewhere in the body. The Golgi body packages and stores these in smaller organelles called the Golgi apparatus until they are required in the cell or other part of the body. Main packaging centre of the cell Cilia and Are hair-like projections on their surface of the cell lining the nose and respiratory tract that sweep the materials across the cell surface. These cilia beat to trap dust, bacteria and viruses and push them out of the body. Flagella Hair like projections on the cell surface that provides motility, or movement. Forexample, flagellum in the sperm cell Microvilli Are finger like projections over the cell surface that increase the available surface area for absorption. Cells in the intestinal surface layers typically have lots of microvilli. Lysosomes These single membrane organelles act as the ‘stomach’ or ‘waste disposal unit’ of the cell. Contain the digestive enzymes which can digest ingested material or damaged tissue ( break down, foreign bodies and worn out cell parts) Liver cells contain the greatest concentration of lysosomes for removing waste products from the body. Centrioles