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DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Structure And Functions Of Urinary System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Structure And Functions Of Urinary System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Definition of the Urinary System Structure And Functions Of Urinary System Structures of the Urinary System The renal medulla consists of 6-18 distinct conical or triangular or wedge-shaped structures called renal pyramids. Renal corpuscle The renal tubule Blood flow and urine formation Accessory organ of the urinary system Urinary bladder Urethra Functions of the Structures of the Urinary System 2. Regulation of blood pressure 6. Synthesis of Vitamin D; In form urine Key Points Functions of the Ureter are: Evaluation Structure and Functions of the Urinary System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define the Urinary System List Structures of Urinary System Describe the Structures of the Urinary System Explain the Functions of the Structures of the Urinary System Definition of the Urinary System What is urinary system? What are the structures of urinary system? Structure And Functions Of Urinary System Urinary system: is the system which regulates the content of blood plasma to maintain the homeostasis of the internal fluid environment within normal limits (control the composition of blood and blood volume) It removes waste products from the blood, of which many of them are toxic The principal organ of the urinary system is the kidney The accessory organs include the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra The following are the (4) structures of the urinary system: Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder, Urethra Structures of the Urinary System The kidneys Are bean shaped organs with a medial indentation located in the upper abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum.They typically extend from T12 to L3.The right kidney is slightly lower than the left due to presence of the liver. Are embedded in adipose tissue that acts as a cushion and is in turn covered by a fibrous connective tissue membrane called the renal fascia, which helps hold the kidneys in place The renal artery enters the kidney, and the renal vein and ureter emerge The outer tissue layer is called the renal cortex, which is made of renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules The inner tissue layer is the renal medulla, which is made of loops of henle and collecting tubules The renal medulla consists of 6-18 distinct conical or triangular or wedge-shaped structures called renal pyramids. The tip of each pyramid is its apex or papilla Renal pelvis is a cavity formed by the expansion of the ureter within the kidney at the hilus Funnel shaped extensions of the renal pelvis; called calyces enclose the papillae of the renal pyramids Urine flows from the renal pyramids into the calyces, then to the renal pelvis and out into the ureter Nephron Nephron is the structure and functional unit of the kidney It is well associated with the blood vessels and the urine is formed there Each nephron has two major portions: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule NEPHRON Renal corpuscle Consists of a glomerulus surrounded by a Bowman‘s capsule. The glomerulus is a capillary network that arises from an afferent arteriole and empties into an efferent arteriole. The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent arteriole, which helps maintain a fairly high blood pressure in the glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule Is the expanded end of a renal tubule and encloses the glomerulus. The fluid that is formed from the blood in the glomerulus will eventually become the urine The renal tubule Continues from Bowman‘s capsule and consists of the proximal convoluted tubule (in the renal cortex), loop of Henle (in the renal medulla), and distal convoluted tubule (in the renal cortex). The distal convoluted tubules from several nephrons empty into a collecting tubule. Several collecting tubules then unite to form a papillary duct that empties urine into a calyx of the renal pelvis. Blood flow and urine formation Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery and flows downstream to afferent arterioles and emerge through efferent arterioles, flowing to upper stream to renal veins, and finally to inferior vena cava The formation of urine involves three major processes The first is glomerular filtration, which take place in the renal corpuscles and The second and third are tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion, which take place in the renal tubules. Accessory organ of the urinary system Accessory organs of the urinary system are; The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are responsible for the periodic elimination of urine and do not change the composition or amount of urine. Ureter Each ureter extends from the hilus of a kidney to the lower, posterior side of the urinary bladder The smooth muscle in the wall of the ureter contracts in peristaltic waves to propel urine toward the urinary bladder. As the bladder fills, it expands and compresses the lower ends of the ureters to prevent backflow of urine. Urinary bladder It is a muscular sac below the peritoneum and behind the pubic bones. In women, the bladder is inferior to the uterus; in men, the bladder is superior to the prostate gland. The bladder is a reservoir for accumulating urine, and it contracts to eliminate urine. The mucosa of the bladder is transitional epithelium, which permits expansion without tearing the lining. The bladder wall is lined with smooth muscle called detrusor, which helps contractions When the bladder is empty, the mucosa appears wrinkled. Urethra Carries urine from the bladder to the exterior In women, the urethra is 1 to 1.5 inches long and is anterior to the vagina In men it is 7 to 8 inches, the first part being surrounded by prostate gland and the second passes through the cavernous tissue of the penis Functions

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissues CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissues using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic NERVOUS TISSUES Nervous tissue or nerve tissue: Components of Nervous Tissue A Typical Neuron Consist of: Types of Neuron Classification of Neurons according to their Functional Roles Neuroglia and their Functions Neuroglia (Glial Cells) : II.Microglia Glia Cells Found in the Peripheral Nervous System Key points evaluation Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissues NERVOUS TISSUES What is nervous tissue? Nervous tissue or nerve tissue: Is the main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity. Nervous tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated communicating network Components of Nervous Tissue Structurally, nerve tissue consists of two classes of cell types. Neurons, the nervous tissue is made up of billions of cells called neurons that are specialized to respond to stimuli and to transmit a signal to activate other cells. Glial cells or neuroglia, non-excitable supporting cells, participate in neural activity, neural nutritional and defence processes of the central nervous system. A Typical Neuron Consist of: Cell body, which has many radiating processes called dendrites, which are specialized to receive signals from other neurons. Axon, a single long process, which is capable of generating a nerve impulse and conducting it over a long distance to stimulate other neurons in the CNS, or muscular or secretory cells elsewhere in the body. Neurons usually receive information through dendrites; the information is integrated in the cell body and transmitted onwards via axons. Types of Neuron Unipolar neurons, these neurons have single processes, the axon arising from the cell body. Unipolar neurons have no dendrites. Bipolar neurons, have two processes (both axons) emerging directly and oppositely from the cell body. Bipolar neurons are found in the cochlear and vestibular ganglia as well as retina and olfactory mucosa. Multipolar neurons, has one axon and many dozens of dendrites. Most neurons in the CNS are multipolar ( +all motor neurones) Pseudo unipolar neurons, has a single short process (an axon) with a T-shaped branching, one branch extending towards the CNS, and the other extending to a periphery ending. In typical pseudo unipolar neurons, both branches are axons on both structural and electrophysiological grounds. Classification of Neurons according to their Functional Roles Motor neurons are involved in stimulating muscles or glands (effector organs) in the periphery. Sensory neurons, sensory neurons receive sensory stimuli from the environment or from tissues and organs of the body. Interneurons, maintain connection between neurons in the CNS, forming complex function chains or circuits. Neuroglia and their Functions What is neuroglia? Neuroglia (Glial Cells) : These are supporting cells found in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system There are six types of supporting cells Four are found in the CNS and two are found in the PNS Neuroglia found in central nervous system are : I.Astrocytes Star-shaped, abundant, and versatile Guide the migration of developing neurons, they are found in large numbers adjacent to blood vessels They form a blood-brain barrier (BBB), i.e. the blood is separated from neurones by capillary wall and a layer of astrocytes foot process II.Microglia Specialized immune cells that act as the macrophages of the CNS They derived from monocytes III.Ependymal Cells These cells form the epithelial lining of the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord IV. Oligodendrocytes, These are found in clusters around cell bodies They form and maintain the myelin, having the same functions as schwann cells in peripheral nerves These cells have clinical importance as most tumours of the brain are arising from them Glia Cells Found in the Peripheral Nervous System V.Satellite cells, surround clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS, they are of unknown function VI.Schwann cells, form myelin sheaths around the larger nerve fibers in the PNS, they are for neuronal regeneration Key points The nervous system is composed of neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia (protective and supporting cells) Neurons are sensitive to stimuli, convert stimuli into electrical signals called action potentials (nerve impulses), and conduct nerve impulses. Neuroglia (Glial Cells) are supporting cells found in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system evaluation What is nervous tissue? What are the components of nervous tissue? What are the types of neuron types? What are the types of neuroglia and their functions? What are the function of neuroglia? ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Structure and Functions of CV-system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Structure and Functions of CV-system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Definition and Organization of Cardiovascular System Circulatory system: Cardiovascular system Organisation of the Cardiovascular System The heart can be thought of as a pair of following muscular pumps: Structure and Functions of CV-system Structure of the Human Heart Covering of the Heart Chambers of the Heart Ventricles Valves of the Heart Blood Supply to the Heart These arteries deliver oxygen to both the heart muscle and the nerves of the heart When the interruption lasts longer, that part of the heart muscle dies!!! …….. Key Points Evaluation Structure and Functions of Cardiovascular system Definition and Organization of Cardiovascular System What is circulatory system? What is cardiovascular system? Circulatory system: An organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), gases (such as oxygen and CO2) , hormones, blood cells, , etc. to and from cells/tissue in the body, and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. The main role of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, gases, to/from cells/tissues of the body. Circulatory system is composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. Humans, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries). Cardiovascular system The system that include the heart and the blood vessels Organisation of the Cardiovascular System The main components of the cardiovascular system are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels Blood circulates within a fast, high capacity system made up of: The heart, which is the central pump and main motor of the system; Arteries, which lead away from the heart and carry the blood to the peripheral parts of the body. Veins which return the blood to the heart. The heart can be thought of as a pair of following muscular pumps: One pump feeding a minor loop (pulmonary circulation), which serves the lungs and oxygenates the blood, The other pump feeding a major loop (systemic circulation), which serves the rest of the body With limited exceptions, each loop is a closed system of tubes, so that blood by itself does not usually leave the circulation From the centre to the periphery, the vascular tree shows three main modifications. Structure and Functions of CV-system The arteries increase in number by repeated bifurcation and by sending out side branches, in both the systemic and the pulmonary circulation. The aorta, which carries blood from the heart to the systemic circulation, gives rise to about 4 × 106 arterioles and four times as many capillaries. The arteries also decrease in diameter, although not to the same extent as their increase in number, so that a hypothetical cross-section of all the vessels at a given distance will increase in total area with increasing distance from the heart. The blood flow is faster near the heart than at the periphery. Structure and Functions of CV-system Venules are vessels which return blood from the periphery, converge on each other forming a progressively smaller number of veins of increasingly larger size. As with arteries, the hypothetical total cross-sectional area of all veins at a given level reduces nearer to the heart. Eventually, only the two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, open into the heart from the systemic circulation. A similar pattern is found in the pulmonary circulation, but here the vascular loop is shorter and has fewer branch points, and consequently, the number of vessels is smaller than in the systemic circulation. Structure of the Human Heart SIZE and SHAPE:The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ It is about 10 cm long and it is about the size of the owner‘s fist It weighs about 300g Location of the Heart Lies in the mediastinum, behind the body of the sternum; approximately two thirds of its mass is to the left of the midline of the body and one third to the right Posteriorly the heart rests on the bodies of thoracic vertebrae five through eight Apex lies on the diaphragm, pointing to the left Base lies just below the second rib Boundaries of the heart are clinically important as an aid in diagnosing heart disorders SURFACE ANATOMY OF HEART Covering of the Heart Heart is made up of three distinct layers Epicardium: the outer layer of heart which provides protection against friction which is divided into Fibrous pericardium: a tough, loose – fitting inextensible sac ii. Serous pericardium: parietal layer lies inside the fibrous pericardium and visceral layer (pericardium) adheres to the outside of the heart pericardial fluid separates the two layers Myocardium: thick, contractile middle layer Endocardium: delicate inner layer of endothelial tissue Chambers of the Heart The heart is divided into four chambers, the two atria and the two ventricles Atria Two superior chambers (the atria), known as receiving chambers, since they receive blood from veins Myocardial wall of each atrium is not very thick, since little pressure is needed to move blood to such a small distance The right atrium receives venous blood from the body through inferior and superior vena cava, then pumps it the right ventricle The left atrium receive oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle Ventricles Two lower chambers(Ventricles)are known as pumping chambers, since they push blood into the large network of vessels Ventricular myocardium is thicker than the myocardium of the atria, since great force must be generated to pump blood outside the heart Since the left Ventricle pumps blood via Aorta to the whole body, its walls are thicker than those of right Ventricle (which pumps blood to the lung) Valves of the Heart These are mechanical devices that permit the flow of blood in one direction only. Atrioventricular (AV) valve:

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Stomach and Intestines CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Stomach and Intestines using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Structure of the Pharynx and Oesophagus Stomach and Intestines The oesophagus has 4 constrictions where adjacent structure produce impression It has four layers; from outside: Structure and Functions of the Stomach The stomach: The most dilated part of the gastrointestinal tract Structure of the Stomach The stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium Blood supply of the stomach; a rich arterial supply, arise from the celiac trunk and its branches. Functions of GIS Functions of the Stomach Structure and functions of the Small Intestines The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve Duodenum is the first section of the small intestine The jejunum is the middle section of the small intestine The ileum is the final section of the small intestine There are, however, subtle differences between the two Structure and Functions of the Large Intestine The following are the parts of the large intestine: If defecation is delayed for a prolonged period, constipation and hardened faeces results The anus is an opening at the opposite end of the digestive tract from the mouth Key points evaluation Structure and Functions of Stomach and intestines Structure of the Pharynx and Oesophagus Pharynx: A tube through which a bolus passes when moved from the mouth to the oesophagus by the process of deglutition The pharynx is divided into three parts namely o Nasopharynx o Oropharynx o Laryngopharynx The Oropharynx is important for digestive system The wall of the pharynx consists of three layers These are the Mucosa, Middle layer (Fibrous tissue) and Outer layer consisting of Smooth muscles involved in swallowing When food enters the pharynx swallowing is no longer under voluntary control Stomach and Intestines The oesophagus is a narrow muscular tube about 25 centimetres long diameter of 2cm, which starts at pharynx at the back of the mouth It passes through the thoracic diaphragm, and ends at the cardiac orifice of the stomach It lies in the median plane in the thorax in front of the vertebral column behind the trachea and the heart. The oesophagus has 4 constrictions where adjacent structure produce impression 1st at the beginning approximately 15cm from the incisor teeth and caused by the cricopharyngeus muscles – upper oesophageal sphincter 2nd where it crossed by the arch of aorta 22.5cm from the incisor teeth 3rd where it crossed by the left main bronchus 27.5cm from the incisor 4th Where it passes through the diaphragm – lower oesophageal sphincter At the top of the oesophagus, is a flap of tissue called the epiglottis that closes during swallowing to prevent food from entering the trachea (windpipe) It has four layers; from outside: o The adventitia o Muscular layer; the muscles are striated (voluntary) in the upper third and mixed (striated & smooth) in the middle and smooth (involuntary) in the lower third There are two layers: The inner is circular The outer is longitudinal o Sub-mucosa layer o Mucosa layer which is made up of stratified squamous epithelium Arterial blood supply of the oesophagus is through oesophageal arteries, branches of thoracic aorta, inferior phrenic arteries and the left gastric branch of the celiac artery Venous drainage is through the azygos and hemiazygos veins Structure and Functions of the Stomach What is a stomach? The stomach: The most dilated part of the gastrointestinal tract Has a J-like shape Positioned between the abdominal oesophagus and the small intestine, the stomach is in the epigastric, umbilical and left hypochondrium regions of the abdomen Its shape and size varies from person to person; even within the same individual its size and shape change from time to time depending on its food contents and the moisture of the body and in adult capacity range from 1.0 to 1.5 litre Structure of the Stomach The stomach is divided for descriptive purposes into four regions by arbitrary lines drawn on its external surface which are o The outlet of the stomach (pyloric orifice) is marked on the surface of the organ by the pyloric constriction and surrounded by a thickened ring of gastric circular muscle (the pyloric sphincter) The pyloric orifice is just to the right of midline in a plane that passes through the lower border of vertebra LI (the trans pyloric plane) Other features of the stomach include: o The greater curvature, which is a point of attachment for the gastro splenic ligament and the greater omentum o The lesser curvature, which is a point of attachment for the lesser omentum o The cardial notch, which is the superior angle created when the oesophagus enters the stomach o The angular incisure, which is a bend on the lesser curvature The stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium The epithelium forms numerous tube like gastric pits, which are the opening of the gastric glands The epithelial cells of the stomach are of five types The first type is surface mucous cells which produce mucus, is on the surface and lines the gastric pits The remaining four cell types are in the gastric glands They are mucous neck cells which produce mucus; parietal (oxyntic) cells which secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor needed for vitamin B12 absorption; Chief (zymogenic) cells which produce pepsinogen and endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones STOMACH Blood supply of the stomach; a rich arterial supply, arise from the celiac trunk and its branches. Most of the blood is supplied by anastomoses formed along the lesser curvature by the right and left gastric arteries and, along the greater curvature, by the right and left gastro omental artery (gastroepiploic artery) The fundus and upper body of stomach receive blood from the short and posterior gastric arteries branches of the splenic artery Venous drainage is through gastric veins parallel the arteries in position and

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Skull-Structure And Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Skull-Structure And Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic bony function of the the of The Eight bones (i) FRONTAL : The (ii) OCCIPITAL : The (iii) SPHENOID : The (iv) ETHMOID : The (v) PARIETAL : The (vi) TEMPORAL : There are 14 bones in the (i) ZYGOMATIC : The (ii) LACRIMAL : (iii) NASAL : The (iv) INFERIOR (v) PALATINE: The (vi) VOMER: The (vii) MAXILLA: The (viii) MANDIBLE: External Surface of Cranial Base Skull-Structure And Functions CT Internal Surface of Cranial Base The Anterior Cranial Fossa The Middle Cranial Fossa The Posterior Cranial Fossa SCALP Functions of the Skull SKULL-STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS bony that its hape.  Skull is the Framework that gives the head its characteristic shape function of the protect and the tissues of rly the The skull is protective to the soft vital structures/organs of the head, particularly brain. the The Skull consists of Cranium bony box housing the brain) and face. of in cranium the The skull is composed 22 bones, in cranium and 14 in face. The Eight bones (1) Frontal (2) Occipital (3) Sphenoid (4) Ethmoid of the Cranium are :- (5) Two Parietal bones (6) Two Temporal bones (i) FRONTAL : The frontal bone forms the forehead , the anterior (front) part of the cranial vault and the roof of the orbits (eye sockets). Inside the bone, just behind the eyebrows are the frontal sinuses. two air spaces called (ii) OCCIPITAL : The occipital bone forms the posterior (back) part of the floor and vault of the cranium. It is the bone which supports the head upon the spinal column. The spinal cord leaves the cranium through an opening in the occipital bone called the foramen magnum (iii) SPHENOID : The sphenoid bone is the central part of the base of the cranium. It forms part of the orbits, transmits the optic nerve and supports the posterior part of the maxilla.It is bat-shaped bone The sphenoid air sinuses lie in this bone. The pituitary gland lies in a bony socket called the sella turcica, located on the superior aspect of the sphenoid bone. Dental Tip: When a patient is seated in the dental chair, the headrest should support the occipital bone and thereby support the entire head. (iv) ETHMOID : The Ethmoid bone lies between the eyes and extends from the frontal bone to the sphenoid bone. It forms the anterior part of the skull, the medial wall of each orbit, part of the nasal septum and the roof of the nose. It transmits the olfactory passes through cribriform plate Nerve that (v) PARIETAL : The Parietal bones forms large part of the a cranial extend frontal vault and from the bone to the occipital bone. The two bones join at the midline on the top of the cranium and form the sagittal suture. From this suture, these bones extend down and out to about the level of the top of the external ear where they meet the temporal bones. (vi) TEMPORAL : Temporal bones complete the sides and part of the base of the cranium. These bones contain organs of hearing and equilibrium. The external acoustic meatus in the side of each bone forms a passage from the external ear to the middle ear which lies within each bone. There are 14 bones in the (i) Mandible (1) (ii) Maxillae (2) (iii) Zygomatic Bones (2) (iv) Lacrimal Bones (2) (v) Nasal Bones (2) (vi) Inferior conchae (2) (vii) Palatine Bones (2) (viii) Vomer (1) face. (i) ZYGOMATIC : The right and left zygomatic bones form the lower and outer edges of each orbit and that part of each zygomatic arch nearest the eye. The Zygomatic bone and Zygomatic process of the temporal bone form the Zygomatic arch. The anterior edge of the zygomatic bone joins the maxilla. That part of the maxilla which joins the zygomatic bone is called the zygomatic process. (ii) LACRIMAL : The paired (right and left) Lacrimal bones form small parts of the medial walls the orbits. of The lacrimal bones transmits the naso-lacrimal duct from the eye to the nose or nasal fossa. (iii) NASAL : The nasal bones (right and left) are long, thin pieces of bone that form the upper part of the bridge of the nose. The anterior lower part cartilage of the nasal septum is composed of (iv) INFERIOR CONCHAE: The inferior nasal conchae (right and left) are scroll like bones lying horizontally along the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The bony elements of the middle and superior conchae are extensions of the lateral parts of the ethmoid bones. (v) PALATINE: The palatine bones (right and left) join in the midline to form the posterior part of the palate . hard Palatine bones also form part of the floor and lateral walls of the nasal cavity and part of the floor of the orbits. (vi) VOMER: The vomer forms the inferior part of the nasal septum, the vertical partition separating the right and left nasal cavities. (vii) MAXILLA: The right and left maxillary bones forms the upper jaw and palate of the mouth. The two halves are fused form the upper jaw. at the intermaxillary suture to (viii) MANDIBLE: The horse shoe- shaped bone forming the lower jaw, articulating with the skull at the temporomandi – -bular joint. Mandible is the largest, strongest face. and lowest bone in the External Surface of Cranial Base The external aspect of the cranial base or basicranium features The alveolar arch of the maxillae (supporting the maxillary teeth), The palatine processes of the maxillae, The palatine, Sphenoid, Vomer, Temporal Occipital bones. The hard palate (bony palate) is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillae anteriorly and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones posteriorly. Skull-Structure And

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Respiratory system disorders CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Respiratory system disorders using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: What are the common disorders/infections of respiratory systems? Respiratory disorders and infections: Upper respiratory tract infections Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world Epiglottitis What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? Bronchiolitis Tuberculosis Vascular disorders which are: Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections in the world Define common disorder of respiratory system What are the common disorders of the lower respiratory system?? Common Disorders of the Respiratory System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define Common Respiratory System Disorder List Common Respiratory System Disorders Explain the Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract Explain the Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract What are the common disorders/infections of respiratory systems? Common Disorders of the Respiratory System Respiratory disorders and infections: A medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, It includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and lung cancer Upper respiratory tract infections Common cold Pharyngitis Epiglottitis Rheumatic fever Diphtheria Lower respiratory tract infections Bronchiolitis (in young children) Pneumonia Pertussis (whooping cough) Tuberculosis Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) Acute bronchitis Acute asthma Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis) Emphysema Chronic asthma Vascular disorders which are: Pulmonary oedema Pulmonary emboli What are the common disorders of upper respiratory system? Common Disorders of the Upper Respiratory System Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world Pharyngitis It is an inflammation of the throat or pharynx. It is often referred to as a sore throat. Acute pharyngitis can result in very large tonsils which cause trouble swallowing and breathing. Some cases are accompanied by a cough or fever. Most acute cases are caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, fungal infections, or irritants such as pollutants or chemical substances. Epiglottitis A very rapidly progressive infection causing inflammation of the epiglottis and tissues around the epiglottis The infection is usually caused by bacteria and is contracted through the respiratory tract Rheumatic fever An inflammatory disease that may develop two to three weeks after bacterial(streptococcal) infection It is common in children Diphtheria It is an acute bacterial disease that usually affects the tonsils, throat, nose or skin. What are the common disorders of lower respiratory system? Common Disorders of the Lower Respiratory System Bronchiolitis Inflammation of the bronchioles due to infections especially viral More prominent in individuals with asthma history and cigarette smoking Pneumonia Inflammation of lung with accompanying fluid build up Much of pneumonia seen clinically is caused by bacteria (Streptococcus Pneumonia). Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is most common to immune compromised patients Pertussis Pertussis, commonly known as "whooping cough," is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by bacteria Tuberculosis Is caused It can be inactive or active It is most prominent to HIV/AIDS patients and other immune compromised patients. Is more characterised by chronic cough and night sweats Obstructive lung (pulmonary) disease (OPD) Cystic fibrosis, lung cancer and asthma belongs to OPD Both may cause obstruction and inflammation Asthma Periodic episodes of reversible bronchial obstruction in people with hypersensitive airways Histamine and leukotriene released from mast cells due to allergens like dust and cigarette smoke are the main cause Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Is the irreversible progressive obstruction of air flow in lungs Includes: Chronic Bronchitis (bronchiectasis)  Chronic inflammation of mucus membrane  This results in a chronic, deep, productive cough  It is due to long term smoking, certain environmental factors such as textile dust fibers  Sometimes is due to complication of CF and TB Emphysema  Permanent & irreversible destructive disease of alveolar  Is due to any chronic lung condition e.g. pollution Chronic asthma  Irreversible bronchial obstruction Lung cancer Vascular disorders which are: Pulmonary oedema  Fluid collection (oedema) in all lung tissues which affects gas exchange and lung expansion Pulmonary emboli  Clot of foreign matter that occludes artery in pulmonary system impact. Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections in the world Upper respiratory tract infections include pharyngitis and epiglottitis Lower respiratory tract disorders are: Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Pertussis Tuberculosis Key Points Define common disorder of respiratory system Identify common disorders of upper respiratory tract Identify common disorders of lower respiratory tract List organs of lower respiratory system evaluation What are the common disorders of the lower respiratory system?? assignment ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Respiratory system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Respiratory system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: What is respiratory system? The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? Respiratory system Nose Paranasal sinuses: Functions of the nose Pharynx Functions of the pharynx Larynx Functions of the larynx What are the structures and functions of lower respiratory system? . The differences btw left and right lungs Bronchial Tree Lungs and pleural membranes Alveoli Respiratory system is responsible with exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in human body What are the functions of respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Respiratory System By the end of this session students are expected to be able to: Define the Respiratory System Explain the Structure and Function of the Upper Respiratory Tract Explain the Structure and Function of the Lower Respiratory Tract What is respiratory system? Definition of Respiratory System The respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy that is responsible with the process of respiration in human body Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body The respiratory system may be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. What are the structures and functions of upper respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Upper Respiratory System Respiratory system The organs of the upper respiratory system are located outside of the thorax and consists of the nose, pharynx and larynx Nose Is made up of bone and cartilage covered with skin, and lined with hairs within the nostrils. The hairs help to block dusts entry The two nasal cavities are within the skull, separated by the nasal septum, which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer The nasal mucosa is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which produce mucus The mucus produced help to trap bacteria and particles from the air There are three shelve like bones called conchae project from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity In the upper nasal cavities are the olfactory receptors, which detect vaporized chemicals that have been inhaled Paranasal sinuses: Are air cavities in the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones Are lined with ciliated epithelium, and the mucus produced drains into the nasal cavities. The functions of the paranasal sinuses are to lighten the skull and provide more vibrating air for the voice. Paranasal sinuses Functions of the nose Respiration (breathing) The nose humidify, warm, filter and clean the air Reception and elimination of secretions from the nasal mucosa, paranasal sinuses, and nasolacrimal ducts Olfaction (smelling) – is the organ of sense of smell It aids speech- this is enhanced by the presence of paranasal sinuses Pharynx It is a muscular tube posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and anterior to the cervical vertebrae. It is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity.  It is continuous with lining of the nose and consists of ciliated columnar epithelium and the intermediate layer is fibrous tissue. Oropharynx lies behind the oral cavity.  It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with lining of the mouth and oesophagus. Laryngopharynx also known as the hypopharynx, this is also lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium. Functions of the pharynx Passageway for air and food Warming and humidifying air Protection Taste Facilitates Hearing (through eustachian tube) The pharynx is also important in vocalization and Speech Larynx The larynx houses the vocal folds, and is situated just below the pharynx between the root of the tongue and upper end of the trachea. The larynx consists of cartilages attaches to each other by ligaments and membranes. The framework of the larynx is formed by nine cartilages (e.g. thyroid, epiglottis) connected to one another by muscles, ligaments and membranes. The epiglottisis the uppermost cartilage. During swallowing, the larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis closes over the top to prevent entry of saliva and food to the larynx Functions of the larynx Speaking (speech)  Sound production is primarily done by the focal folds Respiration (is the air passageway between pharynx and the trachea) Swallowing  The epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into the larynx What are the structures and functions of lower respiratory system? Structure and Functions of the Lower Respiratory System Respiratory system The organs of the lower respiratory system are located inside of the thorax and consists of the trachea, bronchial tree and lungs Trachea The trachea is about 4 to 5 inches ( about 15cm) long and extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi. The wall of the trachea contains 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage, which keep the trachea open. The gaps in these incomplete cartilage rings are posterior, to permit the expansion of the oesophagus when food is swallowed. The mucosa of the trachea is ciliated epithelium with goblet cells. . The differences btw left and right lungs The differences btw left and right lungs are: 1.Right lung has 3 lobes where as left lung has 2 loves 2.Right lung has two fissures (horizota&oblique fissures) where as left lung has only one oblique fissure Left lung has cardiac notch where as Right lung do not have Bronchial Tree Are the branches of trachea that enters the lungs (primary/principal bronchi) Their structures are like those of trachea, with C-shaped cartilages and ciliated epithelium Within the lungs, the primary bronchus branches to secondary bronchi that forms lobes of each lungs (three in right lung, two in the left lung) The further branching of the bronchial tube is called bronchial tree The smallest branches are called bronchioles(

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Physiology Of Muscular System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Physiology Of Muscular System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic What is Anatomy and Physiology? What is physiology ? What is Pathophysiology? A: What is muscular system ? Anatomy and physiology of the MSS Characteristics of muscles Functions of the muscular system B: Types of muscles Smooth muscles 3. Skeletal muscles Other classifications. Skeletal muscle is divided into… Muscle Fatigue : is the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated stimuli. Defining of terms Skeletal muscle fiber The myofibrils contain 2 kinds of protein filaments . Striation pattern of skeletal muscles M line contains three proteins Muscle response C: Types of muscle contraction. i) Skeletal muscle contraction Major Events(steps) of skeletal-muscle contraction Physiology Of Muscular System Types of skeletal muscle contractions Oxygen Debt Role of Calcium in muscle contraction Involuntary muscle movement. ii) Smooth Muscle Contraction iii) Cardiac muscle contraction B. MUSCULAR DISORDERS INTRO… 1.Muscle Atrophy Causes: 2. Muscular Dystrophy The most common types of muscular dystrophy appear to be due to a genetic deficiency of the muscle protein dystrophin. Becker Muscular Dystrophy – is also a sex­linked disorder 3. DISEASES OF MUSCLE TONE ii. Hypotonia – is the muscular disease characterized by decrease in muscle tone. Clinical conditions associated with hypotonia are: 4. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS symptoms Clinical Terms: CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM What is Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy and Physiology is the study of the human body. Anatomy is concerned with the structure of a part. For example, the stomach is a J-shaped, pouch like organ. The stomach wall has thick folds, which disappear as the stomach expands to increase its capacity. What is physiology ? Physiology is concerned with the function of a part. For example, the stomach temporarily stores food, secretes digestive juices, and passes on partially digested food to the small intestine. It is a branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of living things and physical and chemical phenomena involved. Physiology is simply the science of life. What is Pathophysiology? Refers to the study of abnormal changes in body functions that are the causes, consequences, or concomitants of disease processes. Components of pathophysiology- Aspects of disease process. Cause(aetiology) Pathogenesis (mechanism of its development) Morphological changes (the structural alterations induced in the cells and organs of the body) Clinical significances (functional consequences of the morphologic changes) A: What is muscular system ? Is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles which permits movement of the body, maintains posture, breathing and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system is controlled by the nervous system by voluntary and involuntary mechanism. Together with the skeletal system it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the body. They are highly integrated Anatomy and physiology of the MSS Musculoskeletal system includes: Bones Joints Muscles Tendons Ligaments Bursae Musculoskeletal system Characteristics of muscles Excitability – Capability to respond to the stimulus carried from the motor neurons. Contractility – ability to contract or shorten its size. Extensibility – Ability to stretch Elasticity – Ability to return to its original length after stretching Functions of the muscular system Locomotion Vasoconstriction and vasodilatation- constriction and dilation of blood vessel Walls are the results of smooth muscle contraction. Peristalsis – wavelike motion along the digestive tract is produced by the Smooth muscle. Cardiac motion Posture maintenance- contraction of skeletal muscles maintains body posture and joint stability Heat generation – about 75% of ATP energy used in muscle contraction is released as heat. B: Types of muscles There are three types of muscle depending on their situation Skeletal muscle Smooth (non-striated) muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscles Also called involuntary muscles, they are found in within the walls of organs and tubular structures such as esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder and blood vessels. Smooth muscle cells contains on one nucleus and no striations. Cardiac muscles Also is an involuntary muscle but it is striated in structure and appearance. Also contains one nucleus per cell. Found in the walls of heart only. 3. Skeletal muscles Also known as the voluntary muscles, the stripped or striated muscles. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei located peripherally. Used to move the skeleton, support of the body, maintain body temperature, protecting internal organs, provide joint stability etc. Other classifications. Depending on Striation Striated muscles i.e. cardiac muscles and skeletal muscles Non striated muscles i.e. smooth muscles Depending on control Voluntary muscles i.e. skeletal muscles Involuntary muscles i.e. smooth and cardiac muscles NB: Voluntary muscles are innervated by somatic nerves while involuntary muscles are innervated by Autonomic nerves. Skeletal muscle is divided into… Type I, ”slow twitch” or Red skeletal muscle fibers , is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color, it can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activities, and can contract for long periods of time (eg. Solues). Type II, “fast twitch” have few mitochondria and myoglobin, reduced ability to carry on aerobic respiration and tend to fatigue rapidly. Designed for speed further divided into type IIa, Type IIx and Type IIb. Muscle Fatigue : is the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated stimuli. A fatigued muscle loses its ability to contract. Muscle fatigue is due to accumulation of lactic acid and ATP exhaustion due to repeated stimulation. Defining of terms Striation: only present in skeletal and cardiac muscles. Absent in smooth muscle. In that they contain sarcomere and are packed in highly-regular arrangement of bundles. Striated muscles is often used in short, intense bursts, where as smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contraction. Nucleus: smooth and cardiac muscles are uni-nucleated(one nucleus per cell), skeletal muscle is multinucleated (several nuclei per cell ). Transverse tubule ( T tubule ): well developed in skeletal and cardiac

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Features of Gastrointestinal Pathologies Dysphagia –difficult in swallowing Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system PEPTIC ulcer Disease Congenital GI malformation Disorders of Gastrointestinal System Features of Gastrointestinal Pathologies Regardless of the cause and type of a disease Gastrointestinal (GI )pathologies have the following presenting features: Abdominal pain Gastrointestinal bleeding Diarrhoea Steatorrhea=fatty stool Melena=Black stool (upper GI bleeding) Haematochezia=(fresh blood in stool) Hematemesis=Vomiting of blood Constipation Nausea Vomiting Dysphagia –difficult in swallowing Odynophagia –painful swallowing Gastroesophageal reflux Anorexia Weight loss Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) The terms heartburn, acid regurgitation, sour stomach, and bitter taste are all used to describe GERD symptoms Reflux occurs when the oesophageal epithelium is exposed to gastric secretions Some degree of gastric reflux is considered normal, but symptoms occur when the mucosa's tolerance to acid is exceeded PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF Digestive system In addition to the typical symptoms of heartburn or chest pain, extra-oesophageal manifestations of GERD include laryngitis, asthma, and chronic cough GERD develops when acidic gastric contents reflux into the oesophagus and remain there long enough to overcome the resistance of the oesophageal epithelium. PEPTIC ulcer Disease Gastric ulcer Duodenal ulcer Oesophageal cancer Congenital GI malformation Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis Gastric outlet obstruction (pyloric stenosis) … ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Pathophysiology of CARDIOVASCULAR-SYSTEM CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Pathophysiology of CARDIOVASCULAR-SYSTEM using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Definition of the Cardiovascular Disorder Cardiovascular disorders are the disorders of the heart and blood vessels Common Disorders of Cardiovascular System The common disorders of the cardiovascular system include: Arteriosclerosis Angina pectoris Cardiac Arrhythmias (dysrhythmias) Hypertension and its Risk Factors Hypertension is sometimes classified as systolic or diastolic depending on the measurement that is elevated Hypertension must be diagnosed in early stages Key points Evaluation Disorders of cardiovascular system Definition of the Cardiovascular Disorder What is the cardiovascular disorder? Cardiovascular disorders are the disorders of the heart and blood vessels Vascular disease is responsible for more morbidity and mortality than any other category of human disease Cardiovascular disorders are due to multiple factors e.g age (advanced age), genetics, and lifestyle (Sedentary/obesity, cigarette smoking,alcohol,diet ) Common Disorders of Cardiovascular System What are the common disorders of cardiovascular system? The common disorders of the cardiovascular system include: Hypertension= Hypotension= low blood pressure Cardiac failure= reduced heart functioning Ischaemic heart diseases -Angina pectoris= -Myocardial infarction=death of cardiac muscles Arrhythmias= Irregular heat beating Shock = A clinical syndrome which follows critical reduction of blood flow within the microcirculation with inadequate tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery to that tissue Varicose veins= swollen twisted veins in legs Aneurisms= Arteriosclerosis= Atherosclerosis … Varicose veins Arteriosclerosis Arteriosclerosis means hardening of the arteries Is the term used to describe degenerative changes in small arteries, commonly occurring in older individuals and diabetics Elasticity is lost, and the walls become thick and hard The lumen gradually narrows and may become obscured This leads to diffuse ischemia and death in various tissues such as those of the: heart, kidneys, or brain Atherosclerosis It is the condition in which an artery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty materials such as cholesterol (accumulation of lipids in blood vessels causing occlusion) Is differentiated by the presence of atheromas (plaques consisting of lipids, cells, and cell debris, often with attached thrombi, which form inside the walls of large arteries) Atheromas form primarily in large arteries such as the aorta and the coronary arteries. Angina pectoris It is an episodic, reversible oxygen insufficiency This condition is the most common form of IHD Angina pectoris is applied to varying forms of transient chest pain that are attributable to insufficient myocardial oxygen Atherosclerotic lesions that produce a narrowing of the coronary arteries are the major cause of angina However, tachycardia(increased heart rate), anaemia, hyperthyroidism, and hypotension can cause an oxygen imbalance Myocardial Infarction (HEART ATTACK) Myocardial infarction (MI) is an area of dead cardiac muscle tissue, with or without haemorrhage Myocardial infarction is produced by an obstruction of the coronary artery, which results in a lack of oxygen to the tissue For those who survive an myocardial infarction, there is a notably greater risk of a second myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, or a stroke occurring within a short time Cardiac Arrhythmias (dysrhythmias) They are deviations from the normal cardiac rate or rhythm They may result from damage to the heart‘s conduction system or from systemic causes such as, fever, hypoxia, stress, drug toxicity, and electrolyte imbalances. Congestive heart failure (CHF) Is one of the most common cardiovascular disorders This condition occurs when the heart is not able to pump enough blood to meet the body‘s metabolic demands. Heart failure may be caused by any disorder that affects the heart‘s ability to receive or eject blood Aneurysm It is a localized abnormal dilation of a blood vessel or the heart When an aneurysm involves all three layers of the arterial wall (intima, media, and adventitia) or the attenuated wall of the heart, it is called a true aneurysm Atherosclerotic, syphilitic, and congenital aneurysms, and ventricular aneurysms that follow transmural myocardial infarctions, are examples of this type Types of aneurysm Hypertension and its Risk Factors Hypertension is elevation of blood pressure (B.P) usually systolic blood pressure is ≥ 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure is ≥ 90mmHg measured on three separate occasions. There are three classifications of hypertension: Primary or essential hypertension It is idiopathic (occurring spontaneously from an unknown cause) Essential hypertension develops when the blood pressure is consistently above 140/90 mmHg Secondary hypertension It results from renal (e.g., nephrosclerosis) or endocrine (e.g., hyperaldosteronism) disease, or pheochromocytoma=benign tumor of the adrenal medulla,Renal artery stenosis In this type of hypertension, the underlying problem must be resolved Malignant hypertension It is an uncontrollable, severe, and rapidly progressive form of hypertension with many complications Hypertension is sometimes classified as systolic or diastolic depending on the measurement that is elevated For example, elderly persons with loss of elasticity in the arteries frequently have high systolic pressure and a low diastolic value Risk Factors for Hypertension: Family history (genetic) Stress Obesity Smoking Drinking too much alcohol Diabetes mellitus Excessive blood lipid levels. Hypertension must be diagnosed in early stages When it is not properly treated, the risk of stroke, coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, and renal failure increases Key points The common disorders of the cardiovascular system includes hypertension, hypotension, cardiac failure, ischaemic heart diseases, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, shock, varicose veins, aneurisms, arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis There are many factors that contribute to heart disease, such as age, genetics, and lifestyle. Proper diet, exercise, avoiding cigarette smoking, and getting enough rest can do a lot to keep the heart functioning for a long time. Hypertension is elevation of blood pressure (B.P) usually systolic blood pressure is ≥ 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure is ≥ 90mmHg measured on three separate occasions Evaluation What is cardiovascular disorders? Identify common cardiovascular diseases? What is congestive heart failure? What are the risk factors of hypertension? ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean,