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DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Skeletal Anatomy CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Skeletal Anatomy using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Anatomy and Physiology – Skeletal Anatomy Skeletal System Anatomy The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones. Bones act as the body‘s warehouse for calcium, iron, and energy in the form of fat. Finally, the skeleton grows throughout childhood and provides a framework for the rest of the body to grow along with it. The skeletal system in an adult body is made up of 206 individual bones. These bones are arranged into two major divisions: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton runs along the body‘s midline axis and is made up of 80 bones in the following regions: Skull Hyoid Auditory ossicles Ribs Sternum Vertebral column The appendicle skeleton is made up of 126 bones in the following regions: Upper limbs Lower limbs Pelvic girdle Pectoral (shoulder) girdle Skull The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible. These 21 fused bones are separate in children to allow the skull and brain to grow, but fuse to give added strength and protection as an adult. The mandible remains as a movable jaw bone and forms the only movable joint in the skull with the temporal bone. The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the cranium and protect the brain from damage. The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are known as facial bones and support the eyes, nose, and mouth. Hyoid and Auditory Ossicles The hyoid is a small, U-shaped bone found just inferior to the mandible. The hyoid is the only bone in the body that does not form a joint with any other bone—it is a floating bone. The hyoid‘s function is to help hold the trachea open and to form a bony connection for the tongue muscles. The malleus, incus, and stapes—known collectively as the auditory ossicles—are the smallest bones in the body. Found in a small cavity inside of the temporal bone, they serve to transmit and amplify sound from the eardrum to the inner ear. Vertebrae Twenty-six vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body. They are named by region: Cervical (neck) – 7 vertebrae Thoracic (chest) – 12 vertebrae Lumbar (lower back) – 5 vertebrae Sacrum – 1 vertebra Coccyx (tailbone) – 1 vertebra With the exception of the singular sacrum and coccyx, each vertebra is named for the first letter of its region and its position along the superiorinferior axis. For example, the most superior thoracic vertebra is called T1 and the most inferior is called T12. Ribs and Sternum The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior side of the thoracic region of the skeleton. The sternum connects to the ribs by thin bands of cartilage called the costal cartilage. There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the sternum form the ribcage of the thoracic region. The first seven ribs are known as ―true ribs‖ because they connect the thoracic vertebrae directly to the sternum through their own band of costal cartilage. Ribs 8, 9, and 10 all connect to the sternum through cartilage that is connected to the cartilage of the seventh rib, so we consider these to be ―false ribs.‖ Ribs 11 and 12 are also false ribs, but are also considered to be ―floating ribs‖ because they do not have any cartilage attachment to the sternum at all. Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb The pectoral girdle connects the upper limb (arm) bones to the axial skeleton and consists of the left and right clavicles and left and right scapulae. The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. It forms the ball and socket joint of the shoulder with the scapula and forms the elbow joint with the lower arm bones. The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm. The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm and forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the elbow. The radius allows the forearm and hand to turn over at the wrist joint. The lower arm bones form the wrist joint with the carpals, a group of eight small bones that give added flexibility to the wrist. The carpals are connected to the five metacarpals that form the bones of the hand and connect to each of the fingers. Each finger has three bones known as phalanges, except for the thumb, which only has two phalanges. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Formed by the left and right hip bones, the pelvic girdle connects the lower limb (leg) bones to the axial skeleton. The femur is the largest bone in the body and the only bone of the thigh (femoral) region. The femur forms the ball and socket hip joint with the hip bone and forms theknee joint with the tibia and patella. Commonly called the kneecap, the patella is special because it is one of the few bones that are not present at birth. The patella forms in early childhood to support the knee for walking and crawling. The tibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg. The tibia is much larger than the fibula and

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Body Tissues CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Body Tissues using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Anatomy and Physiology – Body Tissues EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUE MEMBRANES Mucous Membranes Serous Membranes Connective Tissue Membranes Anatomy and Physiology – Body Tissues BODY TISSUES Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit. A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix, fills the spaces between the cells. This may be abundant in some tissues and minimal in others. The intercellular matrix may contain special substances such as salts and fibers that are unique to a specific tissue and gives that tissue distinctive characteristics. There are four main tissue types in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Each is designed for specific functions. EPITHELIAL TISSUE Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception. The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with very little intercellular matrix. Because the tissues form coverings and linings, the cells have one free surface that is not in contact with other cells. Opposite the free surface, the cells are attached to underlying connective tissue by a noncellular basement membrane. This membrane is a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins secreted by the epithelial and connective tissue cells. Epithelial cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar in shape and may be arranged in single or multiple layers. Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules. Simple columnar epithelium lines the stomach and intestines. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of the respiratory tract and some of the tubes of the male reproductive tract. Transitional epithelium can be distended or stretched. Glandular epithelium is specialized to produce and secrete substances. CONNECTIVE TISSUE Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs and the body as a whole, store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and help repair tissue damage. They occur throughout the body. Connective tissues are characterized by an abundance of intercellular matrix with relatively few cells. Connective tissue cells are able to reproduce but not as rapidly as epithelial cells. Most connective tissues have a good blood supply but some do not. Numerous cell types are found in connective tissue. Three of the most common are the fibroblast, macrophage, and mast cell. The types of connective tissue include loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic connective tissue, cartilage, osseous tissue (bone), and blood. MUSCLE TISSUE Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts. The tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels. The cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers, and these are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective tissue. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue. Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal muscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue. Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and under voluntary control. Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped, have a single, centrally located nucleus, and lack striations. They are called involuntary muscles. Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus per cell, striations, and intercalated disks. Its contraction is not under voluntary control. NERVOUS TISSUE Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning. To do all these things, cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses. The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are called neurons or nerve cells. These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and one axon. The main part of the cell, the part that carries on the general functions, is the cell body. Dendrites are extensions, or processes, of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell body. An extension or process called an axon carries impulses away from the cell body. Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead support the activities of the neurons. These are the glial cells (neuroglial cells), together termed the neuroglia. Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons together and insulate the neurons. Some are phagocytic and protect against bacterial invasion, while others provide nutrients by binding blood vessels to the neurons. MEMBRANES Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and cover organs within the cavities in hollow organs. They can be categorized into epithelial and connective tissue membrane. Epithelial Membranes Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial tissue and the connective tissue to which it is attached. The two main types of epithelial membranes are the mucous membranes and serous membranes. Mucous Membranes Mucous membranes are epithelial membranes that consist of epithelial tissue that is attached to an underlying loose connective tissue. These membranes, sometimes called mucosae, line the body cavities that open to the outside. The entire digestive tract is lined with mucous membranes. Other examples include the respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts. Serous Membranes Serous membranes line body cavities that do not open directly to the outside, and they cover the organs located in those cavities. Serous membranes are covered by a thin layer of serous fluid that is secreted by the epithelium. Serous fluid lubricates the membrane and reduces friction and abrasion when organs in the thoracic or abdomen

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Cell Structure and Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Cell Structure and Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Anatomy and Physiology – Cell Structure and Functions CELL FUNCTION The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells are determined by the nature of the proteins present. Cells of various types have different functions because cell structure and function are closely related. It is apparent that a cell that is very thin is not well suited for a protective function. Bone cells do not have an appropriate structure for nerve impulse conduction. Just as there are many cell types, there are varied cell functions. The generalized cell functions include movement of substances across the cell membrane, cell division to make new cells, and protein synthesis. Movement of substances across the cell membrane The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the difference between extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport, endocytosis, andexocytosis. Simple diffusion is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent or water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. Filtration utilizes pressure to push substances through a membrane. Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. It requires a carrier molecule and uses energy. Endocytosis refers to the formation of vesicles to transfer particles and droplets from outside to inside the cell. Secretory vesicles are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell by exocytosis. Cell division Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair, and replacement in the body. This process includes division of the nuclear material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in the body (somatic cells), except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce by mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are produced by a special type of nuclear division called meiosis in which the number of chromosomes is halved. Division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis. Somatic cells reproduce by mitosis, which results in two cells identical to the one parent cell. Interphase is the period between successive cell divisions. It is the longest part of the cell cycle. The successive stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm, occurs during telophase. Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the production of the gametes, or eggs and sperm. These cells have only 23 chromosomes, onehalf the number found in somatic cells, so that when fertilization takes place the resulting cell will again have 46 chromosomes, 23 from the egg and 23 from the sperm. DNA replication and protein synthesis Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm function as structural materials, enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones, and other vital substances. DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. A gene is the portion of a DNA molecule that controls the synthesis of one specific protein molecule. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive purposes, the concept of a "generalized cell" is introduced. It includes features from all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles. Cell membrane Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell membrane separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed exchange. The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the cell membrane provide structural support, form channels for passage of materials, act as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers. Nucleus and Nucleolus The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic structure of that cell. Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short distances. Cytoplasmic organelles Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell. Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the function of the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles are mitochondrion, ribosomes,endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Organelles Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound. There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Body Functions and Life Processes CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Body Functions and Life Processes using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Anatomy and Physiology – Body Functions and Life Processes BODY FUNCTIONS & LIFE PROCESS Body Functions Body functions are the physiological or psychological functions of body systems. The body's functions are ultimately its cells' functions. Survival is the body's most important business. Survival depends on the body's maintaining or restoring homeostasis, a state of relative constancy, of its internal environment. More than a century ago, French physiologist, Claude Bernard (1813-1878), made a remarkable observation. He noted that body cells survived in a healthy condition only when the temperature, pressure, and chemical composition of their environment remained relatively constant. Later, an American physiologist, Walter B. Cannon (1871-1945), suggested the name homeostasis for the relatively constant states maintained by the body. Homeostasis is a key word in modern physiology. It comes from two Greek words – "homeo," meaning the same, and "stasis," meaning standing. "Standing or staying the same" then is the literal meaning of homeostasis. However, as Cannon emphasized, homeostasis does not mean something set and immobile that stays exactly the same all the time. In his words, homeostasis "means a condition that may vary, but which is relatively constant." Homeostasis depends on the body's ceaselessly carrying on many activities. Its major activities or functions are responding to changes in the body's environment, exchanging materials between the environment and cells, metabolizing foods, and integrating all of the body's diverse activities. The body's ability to perform many of its functions changes gradually over the years. In general, the body performs its functions least well at both ends of life – in infancy and in old age. During childhood, body functions gradually become more and more efficient and effective. During late maturity and old age the opposite is true. They gradually become less and less efficient and effective. During young adulthood, they normally operate with maximum efficiency and effectiveness. Life Process All living organisms have certain characteristics that distinguish them from non-living forms. The basic processes of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movements, and reproduction. In humans, who represent the most complex form of life, there are additional requirements such as growth, differentiation, respiration, digestion, and excretion. All of these processes are interrelated. No part of the body, from the smallest cell to a complete body system, works in isolation. All function together, in finetuned balance, for the well being of the individual and to maintain life. Disease such as cancer and death represent a disruption of the balance in these processes. The following are a brief description of the life process: Organization At all levels of the organizational scheme, there is a division of labor. Each component has its own job to perform in cooperation with others. Even a single cell, if it loses its integrity or organization, will die. Metabolism Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body. One phase of metabolism is catabolism in which complex substances are broken down into simpler building blocks and energy is released. Responsiveness Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or external environments and reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a stimulus and responding to it. Movement There are many types of movement within the body. On the cellular level, molecules move from one place to another. Blood moves from one part of the body to another. The diaphragm moves with every breath. The ability of muscle fibers to shorten and thus to produce movement is called contractility. Reproduction For most people, reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the birth of a baby. In this way, life is transmitted from one generation to the next through reproduction of the organism. In a broader sense, reproduction also refers to the formation of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as well as for growth. This is cellular reproduction. Both are essential to the survival of the human race. Growth Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or through an increase in the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur, anabolic processes must occur at a faster rate than catabolic processes. Differentiation Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells change into specialized cells with distinctive structural and functional characteristics. Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and organs. Respiration Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells and the external environment. It includes ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the transport of the gases in the blood. Cellular respiration deals with the cell's utilization of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide in its metabolism. Digestion Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested foods into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood and utilized by the body. Excretion Excretion is the process that removes the waste products of digestion and metabolism from the body. It gets rid of by-products that the body is unable to use, many of which are toxic and incompatible with life. The ten life processes described above are not enough to ensure the survival of the individual. In addition to these processes, life depends on certain physical factors from the environment. These include water, oxygen, nutrients, heat, and pressure. ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed discussion of topics on different human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure. Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the following learning units. Three groups of terms

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Anatomy and Physiology – Introduction CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Anatomy and Physiology – Introduction using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Anatomy and Physiology – Introduction ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY By ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY The Anatomy and Physiology module introduces the structure and function of the human body. You will read about the cells, tissues and membranes that make up our bodies and how our major systems function to help us develop and stay healthy. In this module you will learn to: Describe basic human body functions and life process. Name the major human body systems and relate their functions. Describe the anatomical locations, structures and physiological functions of the main components of each major system of the human body. INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY Human beings are arguably the most complex organisms on this planet. Imagine billions of microscopic parts, each with its own identity, working together in an organized manner for the benefit of the total being. The human body is a single structure but it is made up of billions of smaller structures of four major kinds: Cells Cells have long been recognized as the simplest units of living matter that can maintain life and reproduce themselves. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single, newly fertilized cell. Tissues Tissues are somewhat more complex units than cells. By definition, a tissue is an organization of a great many similar cells with varying amounts and kinds of nonliving, intercellular substance between them. Organs Organs are more complex units than tissues. An organ is an organization of several different kinds of tissues so arranged that together they can perform a special function. For example, the stomach is an organization of muscle, connective, epithelial, and nervous tissues. Muscle and connective tissues form its wall, epithelial and connective tissues form its lining, and nervous tissue extends throughout both its wall and its lining. Systems Systems are the most complex of the component units of the human body. A system is an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs so arranged that together they can perform complex functions for the body. Ten major systems compose the human body: Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Cardiovascular Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts. Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole. The structure of an organism or any of its parts. The scientific study of the shape and structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy Definition. The structure of an animal or plant; also, the study of this structure through techniques such as microscopic observation and dissection. Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. In some of its facets, anatomy is related to embryology and comparative anatomy, which itself is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny. Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. Anatomy and physiology, which study (respectively) the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and they are often studied together. Anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions Anatomical Structure of human body ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Vertebral Column Curvatures CT Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions Curvatures of Vertebral Column Structure and Function of Vertebrae The vertebral arch and the posterior surface of the vertebral body form the walls of the vertebral foramen. Seven Processes Arise From the Vertebral Arch of a Typical Vertebra Functions of the Vertebral Column Sacrum and Cocygeal Vertebrae STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN Vertebral Column Curvatures The Vertebral Column The adult vertebral column typically consists of 33 vertebrae arranged in five regions: 7cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 4 coccygeal. CT The typical vertebrae consists of Body, transverse process, the foramen transversarium, the vertebral foramen and spinous process The vertebral column (spine), extending from the cranium (skull) to the apex of the coccyx. Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions The vertebral column protects the spinal cord and spinal nerves, supports the weight of the body superior to the level of the pelvis, provides a partly rigid and flexible axis for the body and a pivot for the head, and plays an important role in posture and locomotion. CT CT Significant motion occurs between only the superior 25 vertebrae. The 5 sacral vertebrae are fused in adults to form the sacrum, and the 4 coccygeal vertebrae are fused to form the coccyx. Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions The vertebrae gradually become larger as the vertebral column descends to the sacrum and then become progressively smaller toward the apex of the coccyx. These structural differences are related to the fact that the successive vertebrae bear increasing amounts of the body's weight CT Curvatures of Vertebral Column The vertebral column in adults has four curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral The curvatures provide a flexible support (shock-absorbing resilience) for the body. CT The thoracic and sacral curvatures are concave anteriorly, whereas the cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave posteriorly. The thoracic and sacral curvatures are primary curvatures, developing during the fetal period. VERTEBRAL COLUMN C1 & C2 …. Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions Primary curvatures are retained throughout life as a consequence of differences in height between the anterior and the posterior parts of the vertebrae. The cervical and lumbar curvatures are secondary curvatures, which begin to appear in the cervical region during the fetal period but do not become obvious until infancy. CT CT Secondary curvatures are maintained primarily by differences in thickness between the anterior and the posterior parts of the IV discs. The cervical curvature becomes prominent when an infant begins to hold his or her head erect. Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions The lumbar curvature becomes obvious when an infant begins to walk and assumes the upright posture. This curvature, generally more pronounced in females, ends at the lumbosacral angle, formed at the junction of the L5 vertebra with the sacrum. CT CT The sacral curvature of females is reduced so that the coccyx protrudes less into the pelvic outlet. The curvatures provide additional flexibility (shock-absorbing resilience) to the vertebral column, augmenting that provided by the IV discs Structure and Function of Vertebrae Vertebrae vary in size and other characteristics from one region of the vertebral column to another and to a lesser degree within each region. A typical vertebra consists of a vertebral body, vertebral arch, and seven processes. CT The vertebral body gives strength to the vertebral column and supports body weight. The size of vertebral bodies, especially from T4 inferiorly, increases to bear the progressively greater body weight. Vertebral Column-Structure & Functions In life, most of the superior and inferior surfaces of vertebral bodies are covered with hyaline cartilage, which are remnants of the cartilaginous model from which the bone develops, except at the periphery where there is a ring of smooth bone, the epiphysial rim. The cartilaginous remnants permit some diffusion of fluid between the IV disc and capillaries in the vertebral body. CT CT The vertebral arch lies posterior to the vertebral body and is formed by right and left pedicles and laminae. The pedicles are short, stout processes that join the vertebral arch to the vertebral body. The pedicles project posteriorly to meet two broad, flat plates of bone, called laminae, which unite in the midline. The vertebral arch and the posterior surface of the vertebral body form the walls of the vertebral foramen. The succession of vertebral foramina in the articulated column forms the vertebral canal, which contains the spinal cord, meninges (protective membranes), fat, spinal nerve roots, and vessels. CT The indentations formed by the projection of the body and articular processes superior and inferior of the pedicles are vertebral notches The superior and inferior vertebral notches of adjacent vertebrae contribute to the formation of the IV foramina, which give passage to spinal nerve roots and accompanying vessels and contain the spinal ganglia Seven Processes Arise From the Vertebral Arch of a Typical Vertebra One median spinous process projects posteriorly from the vertebral arch Two transverse processes project posterolaterally Four articular processes two superior and two inferior Functions of the Vertebral Column Strong bone protection for the delicate spinal cord The intervertebral foramina one on each side providing access to the spinal cord for spinal nerves, blood vessels and lymph vessels It enables certain amount of movements It support the skull Intervertebral disc acts as shock absorber It forms the axis of the trunk giving attachment to the ribs, shoulder, girdle and upper limbs and pelvic girdle and the lower limb Sacrum and Cocygeal Vertebrae The large, wedge-shaped sacrum in adults is composed of five fused sacral vertebrae. The sacrum provides strength and stability to the pelvis and transmits body weight to the pelvic girdle through the sacroiliac joints. The base of the sacrum is formed by the superior surface of the S1 vertebra. Its superior articular processes articulate

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Tissues CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Tissues using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Four primary tissue types interweave to form the fabric of the body. Describe its general role, the terms would most likely be: Tissues are organized into organs such as the kidneys and the heart. EPITHILIAL TISSUE Epithelia form boundaries between different environments. In its role as an interface tissue, epithelium accomplishes many functions, including CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA They are typically found where absorption and filtration occur and a thin epithelial barrier is desirable. Tissues 1.Squamous cells are flattened and scalelike SIMPLE EPITHELIA The cells of a simple squamous epithelium are flattened laterally, and their cytoplasm is sparse. Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells as tall as they are wide . Simple columnar epithelium is seen as a single layer of tall, closely packed cells, aligned like soldiers in a row. 1) Dense microvilli on the apical surface of absorptive cells The cells of pseudostratified columnar epithelium vary in height. The short cells are relatively unspecialized and give rise to the taller cells. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA Stratified squamous epithelium is the most widespread of the stratified epithelia. Transitional epithelium forms the lining of hollow urinary organs, which stretch as they fill with urine. CONNECTIVE TISSUE There are four main classes of connective tissue and several subclasses. Its major functions include COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE GROUND SUBSTANCE FIBERS Collagen fibers are constructed primarily of the fibrous protein collagen. Elastic fibers are long, thin fibers that form branching networks in the extracellular matrix. Reticular fibers are short, fine, collagenous fibers and are continuous with collagen fibers. CELLS The primary blast cell types by connective tissue class are TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE ADIPOSE (FAT) TISSUE Adipose tissue is richly vascularized, indicating its high metabolic activity. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE This type of tissue forms sheets in body areas where tension is exerted from many different directions. CARTILAGE It receives its nutrients by diffusion from blood vessels located in the connective tissue membrane surrounding it. Cartilage matrix also contains an exceptional amount of tissue fluid; in fact, cartilage is up to 80% water! There are three varieties of cartilage: HYALINE CARTILAGE Hyaline cartilage provides firm support with some pliability. Most of the embryonic skeleton is formed of hyaline cartilage before bone is formed. ELASTIC CARTILAGE FIBROCARTILAGE BONE (OSSEOUS TISSUE) Osteoblasts produce the organic portion of the matrix; then bone salts are deposited on and between the fibers. BLOOD TISSUES Groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function are called tissues. Four primary tissue types interweave to form the fabric of the body. These basic tissues are: 1.Epithelial Tissue 2.Connective Tissue Muscle Tissue 4.Nervous tissue Each has numerous subclasses or varieties. Describe its general role, the terms would most likely be: Covering (epithelial) Support (connective) Movement (muscle) Control (nervous). However, these terms reveal only a fraction of the functions that each tissue performs. Tissues are organized into organs such as the kidneys and the heart. Most organs contain all four tissue types, and their arrangement determines the organ’s structure and capabilities. The study of tissues is called Histology EPITHILIAL TISSUE Epithelial tissue, or an epithelium, is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. Covering and lining epithelium forms the outer layer of the skin, dips into and lines the open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems, and covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity. Epithelia form boundaries between different environments. For example, the epidermis of the skin lies between the inside and the outside of the body, and epithelium lining the urinary bladder separates underlying cells of the bladder wall from urine. Nearly all substances received or given off by the body must pass through an epithelium In its role as an interface tissue, epithelium accomplishes many functions, including 1.Protection 2.Absorption Filtration Excretion 5.Secretion Sensory reception CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA Each epithelium is given two names. The first name indicates the number of cell layers present; the second describes the shape of its cells. Based on the number of cell layers, there are simple and stratified epithelia. Simple epithelia are composed of a single cell layer. They are typically found where absorption and filtration occur and a thin epithelial barrier is desirable. Stratified epithelia, consisting of two or more cell layers stacked one on top of the other, are common in high-abrasion areas where protection is important, such as the skin surface and the lining of the mouth. Tissues In cross section, all epithelial cells have six sides, and an apical surface view of an epithelial sheet looks like a honeycomb. This polyhedral shape allows the cells to be closely packed. However, epithelial cells vary in height, and on that basis, there are three common shapes of epithelial cells. 1.Squamous cells are flattened and scalelike 2.Cuboidal cells are boxlike, approximately astall as they are wide. Columnar cells are tall and column shaped. In each case, the shape of the nucleus conforms to that of the cell. Tissues The nucleus of a squamous cell is a flattened disc; that of a cuboidal cell is spherical; and a columnar cell nucleus is elongated from top to bottom and usually located close to the cell base. SIMPLE EPITHELIA The simple epithelia are most concerned with absorption, secretion, and filtration. Because they consist of a single cell layer and are usually very thin, protection is not one of their specialties The cells of a simple squamous epithelium are flattened laterally, and their cytoplasm is sparse. In a surface view, the close-fitting cells resemble a tiled floor. Tissues Thin and often permeable, this epithelium is found where filtration or

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Thoracic Cage-Structure & Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Thoracic Cage-Structure & Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic COMPONENTS OF THORACIC CAGE: Thoracic Cage Sternum/Breast bone PARTS OF STERNUM: Ribs Typical ribs: 1 – 7 pairs of ribs are attached anteriorly to the sternum by their costal cartilages. Typical Ribs (2 -7) Atypical Rib (1st Rib) JOINTS OF STERNUM JOINTS OF RIBS MOVEMENTS COMPONENTS OF THORACIC CAGE: Sternum Manubrium, Body (Gladiolus), Xiphoid process Ribs 7 True Ribs 5 False Ribs (including 2 floating ribs) Clavicle Scapula Pectoral girdle 12 Thoracic Vertebrae (T1 – T12) Thoracic Cage It forms a conical enclosure for the lungs and heart and provides attachment for the pectoral girdle and upper limb. It has a broad base and a narrower superior apex; it is rhythmically expanded by the respiratory muscles to create a vacuum that draws air into the lungs. The inferior border of the thoracic cage is formed by a downward arc of the ribs called the costal margin. The ribs protect the thoracic organs and spleen, most of the liver, and to some extent the kidneys. Sternum/Breast bone Flat bone, with 3 parts: Manubrium sterni Body/Gladiolus Xiphoid process PARTS OF STERNUM: Manubrium sterni Jugular/suprasternal notch Articulates with Clavicles and Ribs 1 and 2 Lies opposite to T3 and T4 vertebrae Manubriosternal joint inferiorly – called Sternal Angle/Angle of Louis – opposite articulation with 2nd rib – at the level of intervertbral disc between T4 and T5 vertebrae (imp. for counting the ribs) PARTS OF STERNUM: Body/Gladiolus Articulates with Ribs 2-7 Xiphisternal joint inferiorly- opposite to T9 vertebra Xiphoid process Cartilaginous – calcifies through time Allows attachment of muscles Tip of xiphoid – at level of T10 Sternocostal joints Ribs Typical Ribs 2-7 Head Neck Tubercle Angle Shaft Subcostal groove Atypical Ribs 1, 8 -10 Rib 1 – short, flat and supports Subclavian vessels Ribs 1, 10-12 – articulate with only 1 vertebra Ribs 11 and 12 – “floating ribs” – do not articulate with Transverse processes of Vertebrae or Sternum Typical ribs: 1 – 7 pairs of ribs are attached anteriorly to the sternum by their costal cartilages. Atypical ribs: 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs are attached anteriorly to each other and to the 7th rib by means of their costal cartilages and small synovial joints. Floating ribs :The 11th and 12th pairs have no anterior attachment. They are embedded in the abdominal muscles. Typical Ribs (2 -7) Long, twisted, flat bone The anterior end of each rib is attached to the corresponding costal cartilage A rib has a head, neck, tubercle, shaft, and angle Head – located posteriorly – has 2 facets for articulation – one for the numerically corresponding vertebral body and the other for the vertebral body immediately above it. Neck is a constricted portion – between the head and the tubercle. The Tubercle is a prominence on outer surface of the rib – at the junction of the neck with the shaft. It has a facet for articulation with the transverse process of the numerically corresponding vertebra. The Shaft is thin, flat and twisted on its long axis. It has a rounded, smooth superior border and a sharp, thin inferior border which has costal groove (it accommodates the intercostal vessels and nerve (VAN ) The angle is where the shaft of the rib bends sharply forward. Atypical Rib (1st Rib) The first rib has a close relationship to the lower nerves of the Brachial plexus, Subclavian artery and vein This rib is small and flattened from above downward Scalenus anterior muscle is attached to its upper surface and inner border Anterior to the attachment of Scalenus anterior, the Subclavian vein crosses the rib Posterior to the attachment of Scalenus anterior, the Subclavian artery and the lower trunk of the Brachial plexus cross the rib and lie in contact with the bone JOINTS OF STERNUM MANUBRIOSTERNAL JOINT: cartilaginous joint, symphysis between Manubrium and body of Sternum XIPHISTERNAL JOINT cartilaginous joint between Xiphoid process and body of Sternum The Xiphoid process usually fuses with the body of the Sternum during middle age JOINTS OF RIBS COSTOVERTEBRAL JOINTS: 2 joints between heads of the Ribs and bodies of Vertebrae (corresponding and upper)- Synovial joints 1st, 10th, 11th and 12th rib has 1 synovial joint with the corresponding vertebra, the rest have 2 each; one for the corresponding vertebra and the other for the vertebra above it 1 joint between tubercle of Ribs and transverse process of Vertebra (corresponding) – Synovial joint (1st- 10th Rib) Intra articular ligament connects head of Rib to the intervertebral disc JOINTS OF RIBS COSTOCHONDRAL JOINTS: Joints of the Ribs with costal cartilages Cartilaginous joints STERNOCOSTAL JOINTS: Joints between Sternum and costal cartilages 1st : Cartilaginous joint 2nd – 10th : Synovial joints= 2nd-7th costal cartilages with Sternum 8th-10th costal cartilages with each other (11th and 12th costal cartilages are embedded in muscles) MOVEMENTS Cartilaginous joints are immobile (thus 1st rib and all costochondral joints do not move during respiration) Synovial joints are slightly mobile (due to movements in both the joints between head, tubercle and vertebrae, necks of Ribs rotate along their axis, helping in raising and lowering of ribs during respiration) ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? 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DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE The Cell: Structure and Functions CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study The Cell: Structure and Functions using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic It’s the basic, structural and functional unit of life Cell structure The cell membrane The Cell: Structure and Functions Proteins in the cell membrane They act as pores for passage of ions Transport across the cell membrane Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Active transport Bulk transport Nucleus Nucleoli Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Mitochondria Lysosomes The cell cycle Interphase Dividing phase: MITOSIS Anaphase: sister chromatids continue moving towards opposite poles Importance of cell division Meiosis The cell It’s the basic, structural and functional unit of life Each cell is capable of performing all the essential life functions. The process by which cells assume specialized functions and structure is known as differentiation. Cell structure Cells conform to the same basic structure. All cells are composed of an external lining membrane known as the plasma membrane that serves as an interface between the internal and external environment. The cell membrane surrounds a number of organelles that are embedded in a fluid medium known as the cytoplasm. The cell membrane All cell membranes conform to the same basic model: the fluid mosaic model. The model was proposed by Singer and Nicholoson in 1970. The cell membrane Cell membrane The Cell: Structure and Functions The cell membrane is made up of a lipid by layer with a hydrophilic polar end and a hydrophobic non polar end. The hydrophilic end is made up of glycerol attached to a nitrogenous compound by a phosphate bond. The nitrogenous cpds include chlorine, ethanolamine or serine. They are positively charged. The phosphate gp is negatively charged. The Cell: Structure and Functions The non polar end is made up of two chains of fatty acids, one of them is straight and saturated while the other is kinked and non saturated. The kinked fatty acids increase flexibility and fluidity Between the fatty acids is cholesterol molecules in the ratio of 1:1 with the phospholipids. The cholesterol prevents close packing and increases fluidity. They regulate the fluidity and increase stability of the cell membrane. Proteins in the cell membrane Associated with the cell membrane are three types of proteins: extrinsic, intrinsic and transmembrane proteins. These make up ½ the total mass of the cell membrane. Extrinsic proteins are found on the outside surface, intrinsic on the internal surface of the cell membrane while transmembrane proteins traverse the whole thickness of the cell membrane They act as pores for passage of ions Associated with the proteins and phospholipids are carbohydrates forming glycoproteins and glycolipids. These are involved in cell recognition, formation of intracellular adhesions and absorption of molecules to the cell surface. Transport across the cell membrane Molecules enter and leave Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Active transport Bulk transport Passive diffusion Requires a concentration gradient. Doesn’t involve metabolic energy. Molecules move from a region of high concentration gradient to a region of low concentration gradient across a semi permeable membrane It is for non polar molecules like ethanol, and polar molecules that are uncharged like oxygen, carbondioxide, urea Facilitated diffusion Similar to simple diffusion but requies a carrier protein It is for larger hydrophillic molecules like amino acids, glucose and fatty acids The binding to carriers is specific but reverscible Active transport Active transport Requires energy in form of ATP Occurs against a concentration gradient It involves pumps Bulk transport Includes endocytosis and exocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis) Cell organelles: Nucleus Nucleus Largest of all cell organelles. Has a nuclear membrane that has pores Contains the genetic material of the cell inform of DNA and proteins(nucleoproteins). The proteins include the DNA associated proteins: histones, and the non DNA associated proteins. Nucleoli Densely stained structures found inside the nucleus. They are sites for ribosomal RNA synthesis. Endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum Made up of interconnecting network of tubules, sacs and vesicles covered by ribosomes Sites for synthesis and packaging of proteins Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: not covered by ribosomes. Sites for lipid synthesis, and synthesis of cell membrane. Golgi apparatus Consists of s system of stacked, saucer shaped cisternae with the concave surface facing the nucleus Involved in intracellular transport by packaging proteins into vesicles and releasing them by exocytosis. Golgi apparatus Mitochondria Mitochondria Cigar shaped highly motile organelles composed of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane (cristae) Sites for energy production in the cell Tend to be plenty in highly metabolic tissues like liver and muscle cells. Lysosomes Lysosomes Oval membrane bound organelles with numerous enzymes involved in breakdown of phagocytosed bacteria and other particles. The cell cycle Refers to events that occur in a cell’s lifetime The cycle is composed of a dividing phase (M phase) and a non dividing phase (Inter phase) There are three types of cells according to the cell cylcle: the continuously dividing cells that are always dividing e.g skin cells and cells of digestive system The Cell: Structure and Functions The facultative dividers: these live the cell cycle and enter the Go phase but retain the ability to divide e.g liver cells The terminally differentiated cells: leave the cell cycle permanently and lose the ability to divide e.g cells of the nervous system The cell cycle Interphase Composed of G1, S and G2 phases G1 phase: cells perform their functions S phase: cells replicate their DNA G2 phase: cells prepare for division. Dividing phase: MITOSIS Composed of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase Prophase: chromosomes become visible, initially thread like, but later appear to be composed of two sister chromatids joined at centromere, nucleoli disappears, process ends with disappearence of nuclear membrane The Cell: Structure and Functions Metaphase: chromosomes arrange themselves at equator of the spindle, microtubules span from opposite centrioles, sister chromatids begin separating and moving towards opposite poles Anaphase: sister chromatids continue moving towards opposite poles Telophase: sister

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Terminology CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Terminology using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Terminology Word Part #1 Word Quiz #2 Word Part #3 Word Part #4 Word Part #5 Word Part #6 Word Part #7 Word Part #8 Word Part #9 Word Part #10 Word Part #11 Word Part #12 Word Part #13 Word Part #14 Singular Plural Terminology Human Anatomy & Physiology: Latin and Greek Word-Part List (prefixes, suffixes, roots) Students of any biology course should learn to recognize the meaning of word parts as they often give clues to the meaning of a scientific term, function, or process. Science terminology is predominately based in the Latin and Greek languages. The following list of prefixes, suffixes, and roots will be used in this and most Biology (bio = life, logy = study of) courses. To help with pronunciation, word parts need to be linked together. The linkage for many word parts is “o”. For example, linking the root “cardi” with the suffix “-pathy” would make the word difficult to pronounce; therefore an “o” is used to link the root with the suffix. The completed word is written “cardiopathy” and pronounced kar-deop-ah-the (heart disease). Accurate spelling of each work is also important. Changing one letter may change the word part and its meaning. Examples include: “ileum” is a part of the small intestine & “ilium” is a bone in the hips, “ped” refers to the foot & “pedia” refers to children, “ab” means away & “ad” means toward. Finding a word in a dictionary, glossary, or index requires a knowledge of spelling – at least the beginning of a word. For example, pneumonia and psychology have a silent “p”. By the end of this course you should be able to: (1) Understand the importance of medical terminology and how it can be incorporated into the study of the human body, (2) Differentiate between a prefix, suffix, word root, and a compound term, (3) Link word parts to form medical terms, (4) Differentiate between singular and plural endings of medical terms, (5) Dissect (cut) compound medical terms into parts to analyze their meaning, and (6) Recognize and pronounce commonly used prefixes, suffixes, and root words used in medical terminology. The last page of this “Word Part” packet has a list of singular and plurals word forms. Word Part #1 Word Part Meaning Example(s) Meaning of Example(s) a-, an, non Without, Not Apnea, Anuria, Nonstriated Not breathing, Without urine, Muscle not striated ab-, ef- Away Abductor muscle, Efferent Neuron Muscle pulling away from midline (deltoid), Carrying info away from brain ad-, af- Toward Afferent neuron, Adductor muscle Carry info toward brain, Muscle pulling toward midline (groin) adi-, lip(o)- Fat Adipose, Liposuction Fat tissue, Removing (by suction) fat from the body -alg Pain Neuralgia, Fibromyalgia Nerve pain, Muscle pain ana- Up Anabolic reaction Building up molecules (bonding amino acids together to make proteins) ang(i)- Vessel Angiogenesis, Vasodialator Making of a new blood vessel, Medicines that widen a vessel ante-, pre-, pro- Before Prenatal, Antebrachial, Promonocyte Before birth, Before the upper arm, Before the monocyte is mature anti-, contra- Against, Resisting Antibody, Contraception Resisting a foreign body (pathogen), Against conception (egg + sperm) aqua(e)-, hydr Water Aqueous, hydrocephalus Water solution, Water (cerebral spinal fluid – CSF) on the brain arthr(o), artic- Joint Arthritis, Articulation Joint inflammation, Joint (where two bones meet) -ase Enzyme Maltase, Lipase Enzyme breaking down maltose, Enzyme breaking down lipids/fats audi- Hear Auditory nerve Nerve connecting the ear to the brain aut(o)- Self Autoimmunity Self-immunity (when a persons antibodies attack its own cells/tissues) bi-, di-, diplo- Two Bicuspid, Diencephalon, Diplococcus 2 pointed (tooth or heart valve), 2 parts within the brain, 2 round bacteria brachy-, brev(i)- Short Brachydactyly, Fibularis brevis Short digits (toes or fingers), Short muscle in the lower leg brady- Slow Bradycardia Slower than normal heart rate bronch- Airway Bronchitis Airway (bronchus – tube entering lungs) inflammationcard- Heart Cardiology Study of the heart cat- Down Catabolic reaction Breaking down molecules (protein bonds being broken to form amino acids) Word Quiz #2 Word Part Meaning Example(s) Meaning of Example(s) cent- 100, 100th Century, Centigram 100 years, 1/100th of a gram -centesis Puncture Amniocentesis Puncture to aspirate (remove) amniotic fluid from amniotic sac cephal-, -ceps Head Hydrocephalus, Biceps femoris Water in brain (in the head), 2-headed (2 tendons) muscle by femur chol-, cystic Gallbladder Cholecystokinin, Cystic duct Hormone causing gallbladder contraction, Tube (for bile) from gallbladder chondr- Cartilage Chrondrocyte Cartilage cell -cide Kill Spermacide Sperm killer circ-, peri- Around Circumcision, Periodontal Cut around (ex. male foreskin), Around the teeth -clast Break, Destroy Osteoclast Bone breaker (cells that destroy cells, thus shaping a bone) co-, con-, sym-, syn-, sys- Together, With Congenital, Synthesis, System Born with, Put together, Organs working together coel-, sinu- Cavity, Space Coelom, Frontal sinus Body cavity, Space in the frontal bone Word Part #3 Word Part Meaning Example(s) Meaning of Example(s) corp-, soma- Body Corpus luteum, Somatic cell Yellow body (former follicle in ovary), Body cell (all non-sex cells) -crine Secrete, Release Endocrine gland Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream cut, derm Skin Subcutaneous, Dermatitis Below the skin, Skin inflammation cyan- Blue Cyanosis Condition causing skin to turn blue (due to low oxygen levels) -cyte Cell Leukocyte White blood cell dactyl, digit Finger or Toe Syndactyly Fingers or Toes that are together (webbed) dec(k) 10, 1/10th Decade, Dekagram, Deciliter 10 years, 10 grams, 1/10th of a liter dent, dont Tooth/Teeth Dentalgia, Orthodontist Tooth pain, Doctor that straightens teeth dia-, per-, trans- Through, Separate, Across Diarrhea, Permaeable, Transcutaneous Flow through (intestines), Across a membrane, Across skin dys-, mal- Bad, Painful, Difficult Dyspnea, Malnutrition, Malabsorption Difficult breathing, Bad nutrition/diet, Poor nutrient absorption Word Part #4 Word Part Meaning Example(s) Meaning of Example(s) -ectomy, -tom, -sect Cut, Cut out Appendectomy, Lobotomy, Dissect Cut out appendix, Cut out cerebral (brain) lobe, Cut in