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DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Disorders of blood CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Disorders of blood using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Definition of Blood Cell Disorder Common Disorders of the Blood & blood Cells Anaemia Sickle-cell disease (anaemia) Haemophilia Leukaemia Vitamin K deficiency Thrombosis and Embolism Both haemostasis and thrombosis involve three components: the vascular wall, platelets, and the coagulation cascade. Risk factors cont…… Embolism Key points Evaluation assignment Common Disorders of Blood Cells Definition of Blood Cell Disorder Blood cell disorder is a disorder which affects the red blood cells, white blood cells and smaller circulating cells called platelets Common Disorders of the Blood & blood Cells Classification of Common Disorders of the Blood Cells Anaemia o Iron-deficiency anaemia o Sickle-cell disease (anaemia) o Aplastic anaemia o Haemolytic anaemia Haemophilia Leukaemia Vitamin K deficiency Anaemia Anaemia is a deficiency of red blood cells, or insufficient haemoglobin within the red blood cells. There are many different types of anaemia. Iron-deficiency anaemia It is caused by a lack of dietary iron, and there is not enough of this mineral to form sufficient haemoglobin. A person with this type of anaemia may have a normal RBC count and a normal haematocrit, but the haemoglobin level will be below normal. A deficiency of vitamin B12, which is found only in animal foods in which the RBCs are large, misshapen, and fragile. Pernicious anaemia is type of anemia due to lack of the intrinsic factor which carries vitamin B12 due to autoimmune destruction of the parietal cells of the stomach lining. Sickle-cell disease (anaemia) It is a genetic disorder of haemoglobin (Hb-S), which causes RBCs to sickle, clog capillaries, and rupture. Even though erythropoiesis is stimulated by the loss of the cells, it cannot keep pace with haemolysis. Aplastic anaemia It is suppression of the red bone marrow, with decreased production of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets. This is a very serious disorder that may be caused by exposure to radiation, certain chemicals such as benzene, or some medications. Haemolytic anaemia It is any disorder that causes rupture of RBCs before the end of their normal life span. Sickle-cell anaemia and Rh disease of the new-born are examples. Another example is malaria, in which a protozoan parasite reproduces in RBCs and destroys them. Haemolytic anaemias are often characterized by jaundice because of the increased production of bilirubin. Haemophilia Haemophilia is an inherited deficiency of clotting factors (VIII, IX and XI) in which bleeding may occur spontaneously or after only minor trauma. It is X-linked recessive disorder. Different types of haemophilia have varying degrees of severity, ranging from mild to severe bleeding tendencies. Haemophilia A (due to deficiency of factor VIII) is more severe than Haemophilia B (-IX ) and Haemophilia C (XI) Leukaemia The term leukaemia refers to a group of red bone marrow cancers in which abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably The accumulation of the cancerous white blood cells in red bone marrow interferes with the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets As a result the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced, an individual is more susceptible to infection, and blood clotting is abnormal The cause of most types of leukaemia is unknown Vitamin K deficiency Vitamin K is not involved in actual clot formation but it is required for the synthesis of four clotting factors (II,VII,IX, and X) It is a fat-soluble vitamin that can be absorbed through the lining of the intestine and into the blood if absorption of lipids is normal People suffering from disorders that slow absorption of lipids (for example, inadequate release of bile into the small intestine) often experience uncontrolled bleeding as a consequence of vitamin K deficiency Thrombosis and Embolism Thrombosis It is the formation of a clot in the blood that either blocks, or partially blocks a blood vessel. The thrombus may lead to infarction or death of tissue, due to a blocked blood supply. The pathologic form of haemostasis is thrombosis. It involves blood clot (thrombus) formation in uninjured vessels or thrombotic occlusion of a vessel after relatively minor injury. Both haemostasis and thrombosis involve three components: the vascular wall, platelets, and the coagulation cascade. Risk factors for thrombosis Age (as the age increases so the risk) Obesity Varicose veins Immobility Pregnancy High estrogenic levels Previous history of DVT Surgery and trauma of the pelvis, lower limbs Risk factors cont…… Heart failure Recent myocardial infarction Lower limb paralysis Cigarette smoking Embolism An embolism is an obstruction in a blood vessel due to a blood clot or other foreign matter that gets stuck while travelling through the bloodstream. Emboli have moved from the place where they were formed through the bloodstream to another part of the body, where they obstruct an artery and block the flow of blood. The emboli are usually formed from blood clots but are occasionally comprised of air, fat, or tumour tissue. Embolic events can be multiple and small, or single and massive. They can be life-threatening and require immediate emergency medical care Key points Anaemia is a deficiency of red blood cells, or insufficient haemoglobin within the red blood cells. It is divided into iron deficiency anaemia, sickle cell anaemia, aplastic anaemia and haemolytic anaemia Haemophilia is inherited deficiency of clotting factors Evaluation What is blood cells disorder? What is the cause of iron deficiency anaemia? What is the consequence of vitamin K deficiency? assignment Classify common disorders of the blood cell ← PREVIOUS TOPICNEXT TOPIC →VIEW ALL MODULE NOTESVIEW SEMESTER NOTESVIEW ALL LEVEL NOTESALL DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY NOTES Need These Notes as PDF? Need a clean, well-formatted PDF copy for offline study, revision or printing? Request the complete notes directly through WhatsApp. GET WELL-FORMATTED PDF NOTES

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Different Cell Types And Structures CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Different Cell Types And Structures using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic History of Cells & the Cell Theory CELL THEORY Prokaryotes – The first Cells Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotic Cell Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells Organelles Cell or Plasma Membrane Phospholipids The Cell Membrane is Fluid Cell Membrane Proteins Cell Membrane in Plants Cell Wall Cytoplasm of a Cell More on Cytoplasm The Control Organelle – Nucleus More on the Nucleus Nuclear Envelope Inside the Nucleus – What Does DNA do? Nucleolus Cytoskeleton Centrioles Mitochondrion MITOCHONDRIA Interesting Fact — Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) Functions of the Smooth ER Ribosomes Golgi Bodies Golgi Animation Lysosomes Lysosome Digestion Cilia & Flagella Vacuoles Chloroplasts Brain storm BASIC CELL TYPES AND STRUCTURES Basic Structure of a Cell History of Cells & the Cell Theory Rudolf Virchow Cell Specialization CELL THEORY All living things are made of cells Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an organism (basic unit of life) Cells come from the reproduction of existing cells (cell division) Prokaryotes – The first Cells Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles Includes bacteria Simplest type of cell Single, circular chromosome Prokaryotes Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall (peptidoglycan) Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their cytoplasm to make proteins Eukaryotes Cells that HAVE a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles Includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals More complex type of cells Eukaryotic Cell Contain 3 basic cell structures: Nucleus Cytoplasm with organelles Cell Membrane Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells Plant Cell Animal Cell Organelles Organelles Very small structures (Microscopic) Perform various functions for a cell Found in the cytoplasm May or may not be membrane-bound Cell or Plasma Membrane Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins Surrounds outside of ALL cells Controls what enters or leaves the cell (selectively permeable) Living layer Outside of cell Inside of cell (cytoplasm) Cell membrane Proteins Protein channel Lipid bilayer Carbohydrate chains Phospholipids Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are hydrophilic (attract water) Tails are made of fatty acids and are hydrophobic (repel water) Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward each other Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter) The Cell Membrane is Fluid Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving and changing Cell Membrane Proteins Proteins help move large molecules or aid in cell recognition Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface (inner or outer) Integral proteins are embedded completely through the membrane Cell Membrane in Plants Lies immediately against the cell wall in plant cells Pushes out against the cell wall to maintain cell shape Cell membrane Cell Wall Found outside of the cell membrane Nonliving layer Supports and protects cell Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria Cell wall Cytoplasm of a Cell Jelly-like substance enclosed Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place cytoplasm More on Cytoplasm Contains organelles to carry out specific jobs cytoplasm The Control Organelle – Nucleus Controls the normal activities of the cell Contains the DNA in chromosomes Bounded by a nuclear envelope (membrane) with pores Usually the largest organelle More on the Nucleus Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that carry genes Genes control cell characteristics Nucleus Nuclear Envelope Double membrane surrounding nucleus Also called nuclear membrane Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter & leave nucleus Nuclear pores Inside the Nucleus – The genetic material (DNA) is found DNA is spread out And appears as CHROMATIN in non-dividing cells DNA is condensed & wrapped around proteins forming as CHROMOSOMES in dividing cells What Does DNA do? DNA is the hereditary material of the cell Genes that make up the DNA molecule code for different proteins Nucleolus Inside nucleus Disappears when cell divides Makes ribosomes that make proteins Cytoskeleton Helps cell maintain cell shape Also help move organelles around Made of proteins Microfilaments are threadlike & made of ACTIN Microtubules are tubelike & made of TUBULIN Cytoskeleton MICROTUBULES MICROFILAMENTS Centrioles Found only in animal cells Paired structures near nucleus Made of bundle of microtubules Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends of the cell Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria) “Powerhouse” of the cell Generate cellular energy (ATP) More active cells like muscle cells have MORE mitochondria Both plants & animal cells have mitochondria Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION (burning glucose) MITOCHONDRIA Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE (increases surface area for more chemical Reactions) Has its own DNA Interior called MATRIX Interesting Fact — Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the EGG cell during fertilization Therefore … You inherit your mitochondria from your mother! SPERM CELL Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER Network of hollow membrane tubules Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport Two kinds of ER —ROUGH & SMOOTH Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) Has ribosomes on its surface Makes membrane proteins and proteins for export out of cell Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER surface They are then threaded into the interior of the Rough ER to be modified and transported Functions of the Smooth ER Makes membrane lipids (steroids) Regulates calcium (muscle cells) Destroys toxic substances (Liver) Ribosomes Made of PROTEINS and rRNA “Protein factories” for cell Join amino acids to make proteins through protein synthesis  Ribosomes Can be attached to Rough ER OR Be free (unattached) in the cytoplasm Golgi Bodies Stacks of flattened sacs Have a shipping side (cis face) & a receiving side (trans face) Receive proteins made by ER Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off the ends Transport vesicle CIS TRANS Golgi Bodies Look like a stack of pancakes Modify, sort, & package

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Connective Tissues CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Connective Tissues using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Connective tissue is the medium which surrounds and supports the other tissues of the body. Resident Cells Wondering cells Types of fibre found in Connective tissues Collagen Fibres Elastic Fibres Reticular Fibres Connective Tissues Adipose Tissue Cartilage CONNECTIVE TISSUE Common types of connective tissue diseases Acute pyrogenic arthritis Chronic joint disease Generalized bone disease CONNECTIVE TISSUES Connective tissue is the medium which surrounds and supports the other tissues of the body. Composed predominantly of intercellular material (extracellular matrix) which is secreted mainly by the connective tissue cells, cells and fibres There are two types of cells; 1.Resident cells (fixed cells) 2.Wondering cells Resident Cells Resident cells are cells that originates within the connective tissue,these include: Fibroblasts: Macrophages (histiocytes) Mast cells Adipocytes Pigment cells (melanocytes) Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells Wondering cells These are the cells which are temporarily found within the connective tissues depending on the needs of the body, example during infection. They include monocytes, lymphocytes and granulocyte Types of fibre found in Connective tissues There three types of fibres found in connective tissue: 1.Collagen fibres💯(produce collagen protein) Most abundant fibres formed by the union of many collagen fibrils that are made up of collagen proteins. 2.Elastic fibres(made up of elastin protein) These are fine fibres made up of elastin protein (tropoelastin) They allow some degree of distention and stretching. 3.Reticular fibres, Smaller fibres that branch and anastomose to form a netlike supporting framework known as reticulum. Collagen Fibres Most abundant fibres formed by the union of many collagen fibrils that are made up of collagen proteins. They are tough, inextensible and possess a high tensile strength and therefore stretching is restricted and they appear white in fresh sections Form major part of tendons, ligaments, cartilage, teeth (Dentin and cementum) and bones.💯 There are many types of collagen fibres but the most important are type I, II, III, and IV. Elastic Fibres These are fine fibres made up of elastin protein (tropoelastin) whereas allowing some degree of distention and stretching When stretched they usually recover the original form and dimension when the force is eliminated and the elastic limit is not exceeded. Elastic fibres changes as the age advances where it loses its resilience and they appear yellow in fresh sections. Elastic fibres exist as accompanying structure of collagen fibres in the capsule of many organs, vascular walls and the elastic cartilage. Also in ligamentum nuchae and ligamentum flava of the spinal cord. Reticular Fibres Smaller fibres that branch and anastomose to form a netlike supporting framework known as reticulum. They are closely related to the collagen fibres because they contain collagen fibrils and they show cross-banding pattern, and are sometimes continuous with collagen fibres. Reticular fibres form the supporting framework in the hemopoietic (Bone marrow) and lymphoid organs such as the thymus, lymph node, spleen.In these organs the reticular fibres are produced by reticular cells. 🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵❤️🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵🇰🇵 Connective Tissues Also found in endocrine glands, small blood vessels, veins, muscle cells, fat tissue, and in spaces between the epithelium with connective tissue. In these locations the reticular fibres are produced by fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and the Schwann cells produce reticular fibres that surround the nerve fibres. In wound healing the reticular fibres are the first to be formed and as the wound improves they gradually change to become collagenous. sevency 👀 Adipose Tissue Formed by aggregation of fat cells (adipocytes) with few other cells such as macrophages,fibroblasts, and leukocytes. Basically it is a storage tissue that stores nutritive material in the form of natural fat that can be used to produce energy when the need arises. Other functions includes; protection and insulation There are two types which include white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue. Cartilage It is a tough specialized connective tissue made up of cells, fibres and ground substances.It is avascular and consists of cells called Chondroblasts and Chondrocytes Ground substance (matrix) is homogenous and surrounds the lacunae in which the cartilage cells lie.Fibres present are either collagen or elastic fibres Perichondrium is a specialized membrane that covers the cartilage,It is made up of dense regular connective tissue with many blood vessels and nerve fibres There are three types of cartilage based on the types of fibres it contains and the composition of the ground substance,which are; Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage Fibro cartilage CONNECTIVE TISSUE Connective tissue is the medium which surrounds and supports the other tissues of the body. Composed predominantly of intercellular material (extracellular matrix) which is secreted mainly by the connective tissue cells, cells and fibres There are two types of cells; 1.Resident cells (fixed cells) 2.Wondering cells Types of fibre found in Connective tissues There three types of fibres found in connective tissue: 1.Collagen fibres Most abundant fibres formed by the union of many collagen fibrils that are made up of collagen proteins. 2.Elastic fibres These are fine fibres made up of elastin protein (tropoelastin) They allow some degree of distention and stretching. 3.Reticular fibres Smaller fibres that branch and anastomose to form a netlike supporting framework known as reticulum. Connective Tissues Also found in endocrine glands, small blood vessels, veins, muscle cells, fat tissue, and in spaces between the epithelium with connective tissue. In these locations the reticular fibres are produced by fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and the Schwann cells produce reticular fibres that surround the nerve fibres. In wound healing the reticular fibres are the first to be formed and as the wound improves they gradually change to become collagenous. Cartilage It is a tough specialized connective tissue made up of cells, fibres and ground substances.It is avascular and consists of cells called Chondroblasts and Chondrocytes Ground substance (matrix) is homogenous and surrounds the lacunae in which the cartilage cells lie.Fibres present are either collagen or elastic fibres Perichondrium is

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOGRAPHY · NTA LEVEL 4 · SEMESTER ONE Central Nervous System CRT04101 · Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology START READING NOTES Study Central Nervous System using the sections below. Use the topic navigation to continue through Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Contents of This Topic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons or nerve fibres Synapse. Synape and synaptic transmission With respect to the skeletal muscles, this inhibition prevents excessive contraction and is important for coordination. Types of neurons Motor neurons Central nervous system (CNS) is a part of nervous system which is made up of brain and spinal cord Central Nervous System The Brain Pons Hypothalamus Thalamus Basal ganglia Meninges AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Sympathetic division Keypoints Common disorders of Nervous system Parkinson’s disease Alzheimer’s disease Neuroleptic disorders are mixtures of symptoms, especially anxiety and depressive ones. Multiple sclerosis Schizophrenia Hydrocephalus Neural tube defects CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous System Refers to the part of the body that coordinates its voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts It is the system that conducts stimuli from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord and that conducts impulses back to other parts of the body. Autonomic Nervous System The part of the nervous system that regulates the involuntary activity of the heart, intestines, and glands, including digestion, respiration, perspiration, metabolism, and blood-pressure modulation. Somatic Nervous System The part of the peripheral nervous system that transmits signals from the central nervous system to skeletal muscle and from receptors of external stimuli, thereby mediating sight, hearing and touch. Nerves are bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that act as information highways to carry signals between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body. The Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous system is divided into: Autonomic nervous system Peripheral nervous system Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons or nerve fibres All neurons have the same physical parts. The cell body contains the nucleus and is essential for the continued life of the neuron. Dendrites are processes (extensions) that transmit impulses toward the cell body. The one axon of a neuron transmits impulses away from the cell body. It is the cell membrane of the dendrites, cell body, and axon that carries the electrical nerve impulse. Axons and dendrites are collectively called Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and are covered by a membrane called myelin sheath. Node of Ranvier is the spaces between adjacent Schwann cells or segments of myelin sheath. Neurolema are the nuclei and cytoplasm of Schwann cells. Synapse. It is the small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites/cell body of the next neuron. The synaptic knob of presynaptic axon contains chemical neurotransmitters that are released to the synapse on the arrival of an impulse. Synapses ensure one way impulse transmission The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse, combines with specific receptor sites on the cell membrane of the postsynaptic neuron, and there generates an electrical impulse that is, in turn, carried by this neuron’s axon to the next synapse. Example of neurotransmitter is acetylcholine found at the neuromuscular junction. Synape and synaptic transmission The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse, combines with specific receptor sites on the cell membrane of the postsynaptic neuron, and there generates an electrical impulse that is, in turn, carried by this neuron’s axon to the next synapse, and so forth. A chemical inactivator at the cell body or dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron quickly inactivates the neurotransmitter. This prevents unwanted, continuous impulses, unless a new impulse from the first neuron releases more neurotransmitter. Many synapses are termed excitatory, because the neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to depolarize (become more negative outside as Na+ ions enter the cell) and transmit an electrical impulse to another neuron, muscle cell, or gland. Some synapses, however, are inhibitory, meaning that the neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to hyperpolarize (become even more positive outside as K+ions leave the cell or Cl- ions enter the cell) and therefore not transmit an electrical impulse. Such inhibitory synapses are important, for example, for slowing the heart rate, and for balancing the excitatory impulses transmitted to skeletal muscles. With respect to the skeletal muscles, this inhibition prevents excessive contraction and is important for coordination. An example of a neurotransmitter is acetylcholine, which is found at neuromuscular junctions, in the CNS, and in much of the peripheral nervous system. Acetylcholine usually makes a postsynaptic membrane more permeable to Na+ ions, which brings about depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron. Cholinesterase is the inactivator of acetylcholine. There are many other neurotransmitters, especially in the central nervous system. These include dopamine, GABA, norepinephrine, glutamate, and serotonin. Each of these neurotransmitters has its own chemical inactivator. Some neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the neurons that secreted them; this process is called reuptake and also terminates the effect of the transmitter. Types of neurons Neurons are classified in to three groups which are : 1.Sensory (afferent) neuron, 2.Motor (efferent) neuron 3.Interneuron. Sensory neurons Carry impulses from receptors to the central nervous system. Receptors detect external or internal changes and send the information to the CNS in the form of impulses by way of the afferent neurons. The central nervous system interprets these impulses as a sensation. Motor neurons Carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors. The two types of effectors are muscles and glands. In response to impulses, muscles contract or relax and glands secrete. Interneurons They are found entirely within the central nervous system. They are arranged so as to carry only sensory or motor impulses, or to integrate these functions. Some interneurons in the brain are concerned with thinking, learning, and memory. Central nervous system (CNS) is a part of nervous system which is made up of brain and spinal cord The Spinal cord The spinal cord transmits impulses to and from the brain and is the integrating centre for the