Psychology: Foundations

Topic one (1)

Concept of psychology used in providing eye care services

Topic content

• Define psychology
• Explain the rise of psychology as a science
• Explain theories of psychology
• Outline branches of psychology
• Describe nature of psychology
• Explain the relation of the subject psychology with natural sciences
• Outline stages of human development
• Describe the theories of development
• Describe the theories of leaning
• Describe memories and forgetting
• Describe personalities
• Describe theories of personalities
• Explain motivation and emotions
• Describe theories of motivation

Describe health stress and coping

Define psychology

The term psychology is derived from two Greek words ―psyche (soul) and ―logos (science or study). First psychology was defined as the study or science of the soul (mind).

Later on, it is also defined as a scientific discipline which deals with behaviors of organisms. Therefore psychology can be defined as the study of behavior and mental process of an organism (human or animal). Generally psychology refers to the scientific study of behavior and mental process of human and animals.

The Meaning of Key Terms from the Definition of Psychology

Scientific study means using techniques such as observation, description, and experimental investigation to collect information and the organizing this information Mental process refers to private and cognitive process such as attention, perception, remembering (memory), problem solving, reasoning, decision making, feeling, thinking, motives etc.

Behavior refers to all the actions or reactions of an organism in response to the external or internal stimuli

The rise of psychology as a science

The rise of psychology as a science began in the late 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig (1879), shifting focus from philosophical thought to systematic study, marking psychology's formal split from philosophy by applying experimental methods (like introspection) to study consciousness and later, observable behaviors using scientific principles like observation, measurement, and hypothesis testing

Factors for the Rise of Psychology

Shift from Philosophy: Previously a branch of philosophy, psychology sought to become a distinct field by adopting scientific methods, moving beyond mere speculation about the soul or mind.

Wundt's Laboratory (1879): The opening of the first experimental psychology lab by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany, is considered the birth of modern, scientific psychology, demonstrating that mental processes could be studied empirically.

Application of Scientific Method: Wundt and early psychologists began using systematic steps like observation, classification, and verification, similar to other sciences, to study phenomena like reaction times and memory.

Psychology: Foundations

Focus on Measurable Behavior: While Wundt studied consciousness (using introspection), the field later (early 20th century) emphasized observable behavior, making it more amenable to rigorous scientific study, as behavior could be measured objectively.

Behaviorism: The rise of behaviorism further cemented psychology's scientific status by focusing purely on observable behaviors and conditioning (like Pavlov's work), using controlled experiments to understand learning and responses.

Empirical Data & Objectivity: The commitment to collecting empirical data and using the scientific method (hypothesis testing, falsifiability) allowed psychology to build objective knowledge, distinguishing it from common sense or subjective beliefs.

Explain theories of psychology

Psychological theories are evidence-based frameworks explaining human behavior, thoughts, and emotions, ranging from grand perspectives like Psychodynamic (unconscious mind, Freud) and Behavioral (learned responses, B.F. Skinner) to Cognitive (mental processes, memory, thinking) and Humanistic (self-actualization, Maslow). They describe phenomena, make testable predictions, and help understand development, mental health, and social interactions, with many contemporary approaches integrating these core ideas for a comprehensive view.

Psychological Perspectives (Grand Theories)

Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theory. (Freud): Focuses on unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and conflicts (id, ego, superego) shaping personality and behavior.

Behaviorism theories. (Watson, Skinner): Believes behavior is learned through environmental interaction, focusing on observable actions, reinforcement, and conditioning (classical & operant) Cognitive theories. (Piaget, Beck): Studies internal mental processes like memory, perception, problem-solving, and how thoughts influence actions.

Humanistic theories. (Maslow, Rogers): Emphasizes personal growth, free will, self-actualization, and inherent goodness, focusing on individuals striving to be their best.

Biological theories. Examines the role of genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and physiology in behavior.

Developmental theories. (Piaget, Erikson): Explain changes in cognitive, social, and emotional abilities across the lifespan (e.g., Piaget's stages).

Social learning theory. (Bandura): Behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and modeling, not just direct reinforcement.

Attachment theory. (Bowlby, Ainsworth): Explores the importance of early bonds with caregivers for later relationships and development.

branches of psychology

Behavioral Psychology: Is a psychological approach focusing on observable behaviors and how they are learned through interactions with the environment and conditioning (reward, punishments, associations) rather than internal thoughts. This area explores the link between visual function and a patient's overall behavior, motor skills, and learning. Focus: It investigates how visual problems might manifest as behavioral or psychological symptoms, such as inattention or frustration, particularly in children.

Psychology: Foundations

Cognitive Psychology: is the scientific study of internal processes, exploring how people perceive, think, learn, remember, solve problem, and use language, viewing the mind as an information processor like a computer. This branch studies mental processes like perception, thinking, and memory. It helps optometrists understand how individuals acquire, process, and interpret visual information.

This understanding is crucial for diagnosing and treating visual information processing impairments, which may be caused by brain injury or impact learning abilities.

Psychology: Foundations

Health Psychology: This field examines how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors influence physical health and illness. It is important for understanding patient behavior, promoting adherence to treatment regimens (e.g., wearing prescribed glasses or using eye drops), and managing the anxiety and depression that can accompany vision loss or chronic eye conditions. Optometrists may use interventions based on health psychology, such as patient counseling and stress management techniques, to improve a patient's overall well-being and treatment outcomes.

Psychology: Foundations

Clinical Psychology/Neuropsychology: Is a broad field focused on assessing, diagnosing, treating, and preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, integrating scientific research with practical care for individual, family, and groups to improve overall well-being. Optometrists often collaborate with clinical neuropsychologists, especially in the diagnosis and treatment of visual impairments resulting from brain injury or neurological disorders.

nature of psychology

The nature of psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, exploring why individuals think, feel, and act as they do by examining mental processes (cognition, emotion) and observable actions, integrating both natural science (biology) and social science (culture) perspectives to understand the individual within their environment, ultimately aiming to describe, explain, predict, and change behavior. It's a broad discipline that uses systematic observation and experimentation to uncover principles governing human and animal life, bridging introspection with empirical data.

Core Aspects of Psychology's Nature

Scientific Discipline: Psychology uses empirical, observable data and the scientific method to investigate mental phenomena, moving beyond mere philosophical speculation.

Focus on Mind & Behavior: It studies both internal mental processes (thoughts, feelings, memory, consciousness) and external, observable behaviors (actions, responses).

Interdisciplinary: It connects the natural sciences (brain, biology) with the social sciences (group dynamics, culture, society).

Individual Focus: While related to sociology, psychology zeroes in on the individual's unique experiences, making it distinct from broader group studies.

the relation of the subject psychology with natural sciences

Psychology is deeply intertwined with natural sciences like biology, chemistry, and physics, as the mind and behavior stem from biological processes in the brain, requiring natural science to explain its physical foundations,

Relation to natural science

Biological Foundations: The study of the brain, nervous system, genetics, and neurochemistry forms a critical part of psychology, particularly in subfields like biopsychology and neuropsychology. These areas investigate the physiological factors that influence mental processes and behavior, directly linking psychology with biology and chemistry.

Psychology: Foundations

Scientific Methodology: Psychology uses the empirical methods, observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis characteristic of the natural sciences to test hypotheses and draw objective, evidence-based conclusions.

Psychology: Foundations

Visual Perception: Optometry relies heavily on natural sciences like biology, chemistry, and physics to understand the physical mechanisms of the eye. Psychology then applies scientific methodologies to study how the mind interprets the sensory input received by the eye. This includes understanding the neurophysiologic mechanisms of vision, how visual stimuli are processed, and the brain mechanisms involved in sight.

Psychology: Foundations

Sensory Perceptions: The natural science of how light enters the eye (optics) is integrated with the psychology of how that information is perceived and interpreted by the brain and mind.

Behavioral Aspects: Psychology provides the framework for understanding visually guided behaviors, an area of study sometimes referred to as behavioral optometry.

stages of human development

Human development is the patterns of continuity and change that begins at conception and continues through the life spans which normally involves growth, although it also include decay.

Psychology views human development as a lifelong process divided into stages like prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, focusing on physical, cognitive (Piaget), and psychosocial (Erikson) changes, with major theories explaining shifts from basic reflexes to complex thought and identity formation, moving through conflicts like Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy) to Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood).

Stages human Development

Prenatal: From conception to birth (germinal, embryonic, fetal).

Infancy & Toddlerhood: Birth to ~2-3 years; rapid physical growth, basic learning, Trust vs. Mistrust.

Early Childhood: 3-6 years; play, initiative, developing language.

Middle & Late Childhood: 6-12 years; school, developing competence (Industry vs. Inferiority).

• Adolescence: 12-18 years; identity formation (Identity vs. Role Confusion).
• Early Adulthood: ~20s-40s; forming relationships (Intimacy vs. Isolation).
• Middle Adulthood: ~40s-60s; contributing to society (Generativity vs. Stagnation).

Late Adulthood: 65+; reflecting on life (Ego Integrity vs. Despair).

theories of development

Psychology's theories of human development explain how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally, with major perspectives 1. Psychoanalytic Theories:

Freud's Psychosexual Theory: Focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences shaping personality in fixed stages (e.g., oral, anal).

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory: Expands on Freud, proposing eight lifespan stages with social conflicts (e.g., Trust vs. Mistrust) that build identity.

2. Behavioral & Social Learning Theories:

Behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner): Development as learned responses through classical (association) and operant (reinforcement/punishment) conditioning.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Emphasizes observational learning and modeling, highlighting cognitive processes in learning.

3. Cognitive Theories:

Piaget's Cognitive Development: Children actively construct understanding through four universal stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: Highlights the crucial role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.

Psychology: Foundations

4. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner): Views development as influenced by multiple interacting environmental systems (microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem).

5. Attachment Theory (Bowlby): Focuses on the importance of early emotional bonds with caregivers for healthy social and emotional development.

theories of leaning

learning theories explain how we gain knowledge, focusing on distinct processes: These theories, like Pavlov's classical conditioning or Bandura's observational learning, provide frameworks for understanding how individuals learn in different contexts.

Major Learning Theories

Behaviorism (Behaviorist Theory): Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are shaped by environmental stimuli through conditioning (rewards/punishments). Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike.

Example: A dog learning to drool at a bell sound after it's paired with food (classical conditioning).

Psychology: Foundations

Cognitivism (Cognitive Learning Theory): Views learning as an internal mental process, emphasizing how information is processed, stored, and retrieved, much like a computer. Focusing in Memory, problem-solving, thinking.

Constructivism: Proposes learners actively construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Piaget (social constructivism).

Humanism: Centers on the individual's potential, self-actualization, and personal growth, emphasizing learner-driven, meaningful experiences. Focus in Motivation, self-concept, and personal achievement.

Connectivism: A newer theory addressing learning in the digital age, suggesting knowledge resides in networks, and learning involves connecting nodes.

Describe memories and forgetting

memory is the brain's ability to encode, store, and retrieve information, involving sensory, short-term (working), and long-term types, forgetting is the failure to recall stored info due to decay, interference (new/old info blocking each other), retrieval failure (like tip-of-the-tongue), or encoding issues, with memory often being a reconstructive process rather than a perfect recording, susceptible to distortion and suggestibility

Memory process

Encoding: Converting sensory input into a storable format for the brain, often in the hippocampus, using neurotransmitters like acetylcholine.

Storage/consolidation: maintaining information over time, converting short-term to long-term memory. Retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval: Accessing stored information, with successful recall depending on cues and context.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory: very brief (1-2 seconds) holding of sensory information.

Short-Term/Working Memory: Holds limited info (around 7 items) for 20-30 seconds, allowing manipulation (e.g., a phone number).

• Long-Term Memory: Vast, lasting storage for experiences, facts, and skills. Including
• Episodic; personal experiences and events.
• Semantic; facts and general knowledge.

Procedural; skills and habits (like walking or talking)

Strategies to Improve Memory

• Chunking: Grouping items, break large Infor into smaller (like digits). E.g phone number,
• Rehearsal: Repeating information.

Spaced Practice: Spreading learning over time.

Forgetting

Forgetting in psychology is the apparent loss or difficulty recalling encoded information, Causes of forgetting

Trace Decay/Disuse Memory traces weaken and fade naturally as time passes without rehearsal.

• Interference Other memories disrupt the recall of a target memory.
• Proactive Old info blocks new info.

Retroactive New info blocks old info.

Retrieval Failure The memory exists but can't be accessed due to lack of cues (context-dependent, state-dependent) or encoding failure.

Motivated Forgetting (Repression): The mind pushes unpleasant memories away to reduce anxiety (Freudian concept).

Absentmindedness Lapses in attention during encoding, making information hard to store.

Describe personalities

personality refers to an individual's unique, stable patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving, shaped by genetics, environment, and experiences, studied through various models Personality affects mental and physical health, relationships, career success, and how individuals adapt to stress and challenges.

Theories of personalities

Personality theories explain individual differences in behavior, feelings, and thoughts, broadly categorized into major approaches like Psychodynamic (unconscious, early experiences), Humanistic (self-actualization, free will), Trait (stable characteristics, Big Five), Behavioral/Social Cognitive (learning, environment, cognition), and Biological/Evolutionary (genetics, brain structure).

Major Personality Theories

Psychodynamic Theories Focus on unconscious drives, conflicts (Id, Ego, Superego), and early childhood experiences shaping personality (e.g., Sigmund Freud).

Humanistic Theories Emphasize inherent goodness, free will, self-actualization, and personal growth (e.g., Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow).

Trait Theories Propose personality is a collection of stable traits, with the "Big Five" (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) being prominent.

Behavioral & Social-Cognitive Theories View personality as learned behaviors from environmental interactions (Behaviorism) or a blend of environment, behavior, and cognitive processes (Social Cognitive Theory, e.g., Albert Bandura).

Biological & Evolutionary Theories Link personality to genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and evolutionary adaptation.

Explain motivation and emotions

Motivation is the inner drive or reason that pushes someone to act, initiate, and persist in goal-directed behaviors, stemming from internal satisfaction (intrinsic) or external rewards/punishments (extrinsic). It influences the direction, intensity, and duration of our actions, crucial for achieving personal, professional, and social objectives, and its absence can even link to mental health issues like depression.

Types of Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation Doing something because it's personally rewarding, enjoyable, or satisfying (e.g., reading for pleasure).

Extrinsic Motivation Doing something for external rewards or to avoid punishment (e.g., working for a paycheck, studying to pass a test).

Emotions

Emotion refers to a complex phenomenon that involves neural circuits, response systems, and a feeling state/process. It is characterized by subjective experience, changes in physiological arousal, and behavioral expression.

Types of Emotions

Basic Emotions: Universal, primary feelings like anger, fear, happiness, etc..

Secondary Emotions: More complex emotions that often follow primary ones (e.g., shame after feeling rejected).

Moods: Longer-lasting, lower-intensity emotional states without a clear trigger, unlike emotions.

Describe theories of motivation

Maslow's Hierarchy Suggests needs are hierarchical, from physiological (food, water) to self-actualization (fulfilling potential).

Goal-Setting Theory Specific, challenging goals with feedback boost motivation and persistence (Locke & Latham).

Reinforcement Theory Behavior is shaped by consequences (rewards increase behavior, punishments decrease it) (Skinner).

Equity Theory People are motivated by fairness; they compare their effort/reward ratio to others’. (J. Stacey Adams)

Expectancy Theory Motivation depends on the belief that effort leads to performance, and performance leads to desired outcomes (Vroom).

Describe health stress and coping

Health stress involves the body's reaction to demands exceeding resources, causing physical (headaches, fatigue) and mental (anxiety, poor focus) symptoms.

Stress is a psychological and physiological reaction to perceived challenges, Stress occurs when individuals perceive that a situation exceeds their available resources. while coping is the dynamic process used to manage those demands.

coping are the cognitive and behavioral strategies used to manage these reactions, ranging from healthy (exercise, social support, problem-solving) to unhealthy (substance abuse, excessive eating).

Stress

A transactional process where individuals perceive demands as threatening or exceeding their ability to cope, triggering a response.

Symptoms: Can manifest as headaches, fatigue, muscle tension, digestive issues, irritability, difficulty concentrating, sleep problems, or changes in appetite.

Impact: Chronic stress can worsen existing health conditions and lead to mental health issues like anxiety and depression.

Coping

The ongoing efforts, both conscious and unconscious, to manage the emotional and practical fallout from stressful situations.

Types of Strategies:

Problem-Focused Directly addressing the source of stress (e.g., problem-solving, seeking information).

Emotion-Focused Regulating the emotional response (e.g., reframing thoughts, seeking comfort, relaxation).

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