Establishing Trends in Health Care
Session 4: Establishing Trends in Health Care
Total Session Time: 120 minutes
Prerequisites
Learning Tasks
By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:
Resources Needed
SESSION OVERVIEW
Activity/
Step Time Content
Method
1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks
Presentation Tables and Graph used to Determine Trend
2 15 minutes
Buzzing
60 minutes Presentation Generation of Tables and Graphs
3 Small group
discussion
4 30 minutes Presentation Interpretation of Tables and Graphs
5 05 minutes Presentation Key Points
6 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation
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SESSION CONTENTS
STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify
ASK students if they have any questions before continuing
STEP 2: Tables and Graph Used to Determine Trend (15 minutes)
Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)
ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes
ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned
WRITE their response on the flip chart/board
CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below
o Line graphs
o Bar graph
o Histogram
o Frequency polygon
o Frequency curve
o Cumulative frequency
STEP 3: Generation of Tables and Graphs (55 minutes)
Activity: Small group (15 minutes)
DIVIDE students into groups of 5-6 people
ASK students in their small groups to answer the following questions
How do you generate tables and graphs to determine Trends?
ALLOW one group to present and let other groups to add on points not mentioned.
WRITE their response on the flip chart/board
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CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the following content
A table is a drawing having columns and rows that facilitate representation of large
amount of data in an attractive easy to read and organized manner.
Steps to make a table
o Name your table – write a title of the table at the top of the paper
o Decide how many rows and columns you need
o Insert/draw a table using the computer
o Label your columns and rows
o Record the data you have in the columns and rows
o When making cross-tabulations, check that the column and row counts correspond to
the frequency counts for each variable.
o Also check that the grand total in the table corresponds to the number of subjects in the
sample. Example of a table
Table 1.: Type of health worker by residence
Residence Type of Health Worker Total
Doctors Pharmacists
Rural 10 (16%) 69 (38%) 79 (33%)
Urban 51 (84%) 113 (62%) 164 (67%)
Total 61 (100%) 182 (100%) 243 (100%)
o A line graph is a diagram that shows a line joining several points, or a line that shows
the relationship between the points.
o A line graph can be taken as xy plane, where there will be an independent variable
and a dependent variable
o It specifies how the two variables are related to each other and vary with respect to
one another.
o Mostly, the independent variable is taken on the x-axis while the dependent variable
on the y-axis.
o Step 1: Use the data from the table to choose an appropriate scale
The table given below shows the weights of a child in months
SNo. Age in Months Weight (Kg)
A. 1 38
B. 3 41
C. 5 43
D. 7 49
E. 9 51
F. 11 54
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o Step 2: Draw and label the scale on the vertical and horizontal axis
o Step 3: List the each item and locate the points on the graph
o Step 4: Connect the points with line segments
follows:
Line graph have one or more lines plotted on the graph. They are very useful for showing change over time
o Bar graph is drawn on an x-y graph and it has labeled horizontal or vertical bars that
show different values.
contrasting the size of the different categories of the data provided
school 90%, 100% and 60% during the year 2000, 2001 and 2002 respectively
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o The frequency polygon has most of the properties of a histogram, with an extra
feature
o Here the mid-point of each class of the x-axis is marked
o Then the midpoints and the frequencies are taken as the plotting point
o These points are connected using line segments
o We also complete the graph, that is, it's closed by joining to the x-axis.
o Frequency polygon gives a less accurate representation of the distribution, than a
histogram, as it represents the frequency of each class by a single point not by the
whole class interval
o Let‘s consider a data table and let‘s try to draw frequency polygon of it
o Draw a graph by using data given below:
Class interval Frequency
0-10 1
10-20 3
20-30 6
30-40 4
40-50 2
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Step 1: First we need the mid-point of the class interval
Class interval Mid-point Frequency
0-10 5 1
10-20 14 3
20-30 25 6
30-40 35 4
40-50 45 2
Step 2: Then draw frequency polygon
o Histogram is the most accurate graph that represents a frequency distribution
o In the histogram the scores are spread uniformly over the entire class interval
o The class intervals are plotted on the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis
o Each interval is represented by a separate rectangle
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o To plot this take the class limits on the x-axis and the frequency on the y-axis.
o On the x-axis, the scale can be 10 units whereas on the y-axis the scale can be 1 unit.
STEP 4: Interpretation of Tables and Graphs (30 minutes)
Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes)
Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:
ALLOW few students to respond?
WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board
CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below
o A frequency shows the number of times that data with particular characteristics occur
in a data set.
o The distribution tells how many or what proportion of the group has each value or a
range of values out of all possible values
o the frequency of each group is represented by the length of the corresponding bar
o the height of the bar over a period represents the figure for the corresponding period
o read erected rectangles over class interval representing the frequencies of the class
interval
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o the frequency distributions of each grouped data by areas (height and width), e.g. the
frequency distribution of patients presenting with a certain condition in a given
period, with the patient grouped into 5-years block
o compare individual category with the total
o depicts each category as a slice of pie with the size of each slice varying according to
its proportion of the whole pie
o see variations in increase and decrease over time or seasons
STEP 5: Key Points (5 minutes)
relationship between the points
STEP 6: Evaluation (5 minutes)
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References
Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., Williams, T.A., Freeman, J. & Shoesmith, E. (2007).
Basic Statistics and epidemiology (2001). A practical guide, Radcliffe Medical Press,
United Kingdom
Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology, World Health
Organization, Geneva
Kazaura, M. R., Makwaya, C. K., Masanja, C. M. and Mpembeni, R.C. (1997). Lecture notesin
Biostatistics, manual of biostatistics: Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences,
Dar es Salaam
Polit, D. F and Beck, C. T (2004) Nursing Research – Principles and Methods, (7th Ed):
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Rao, J. S., & Richard, J. (2002). An introduction to biostatistics-a manual for students in
helthsciences (3rd. Ed): New Delhi, India: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd
Rosner B (2010): Fundamental of Biostatistics (7th Ed.): Boston, USA: Cengage Learning
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PST 06210 Operational Research NTA Level 6 Semester 2 Facilitator Guide 31
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