Concept of Map Reading

The Concept of Map and its Importance to Social Economic Activities

Explain the concept of map and its importance to social economic activities Map reading is the process of identifying features on a map by using symbols and signs or names. This technical work requires certain skills that any map reader must possess.

Map interpretation refers to interpretation of the symbols and signs used on map into ordinary language by indicating the features they represent and draw logical conclusions from the information as represented by the symbols.

Importance of map reading

Map reading is very important to social and economic activities Maps are drawn for different purposes and once drawn they can serve as databases from which various information ean be ‘obtained and used for a myriad of social and economie benefits a. Geological maps provide information about the type and distribution of rocks in an area This knowledge is of great help to builders who can use it to find out where to obtain certain

rocks for construction. This knowledge can also be used by mineral prospectors to locate possible areas where they ean obtain mineral. The information on soil types can be used by civil cagineers to establish the stability of the on which to build roads and other structures.

b. Relief maps provide information to many people in many ways. For example, civil and architectural engineers need to know relief of an area so that they ean plan in advance how to overcome relief barriers in their construction plans. It also important to large scale farmers as they need elie? to plan for the extent of farms and also to determine the possibility of mechanization (use various machines in sgricultural production)

¢. Drainage maps are useful to civil engineers es they ean use them to get prior knowledge con how to construct bridges, roads, milways and other infrastructures. It is also useful to agriculture as such maps indicate possible sources of water for imgction of crops, watering livestock and for other general farm uses Weather and climate maps are useful especially to people interested in agriculture. They provide information on the kind of crops to be grown and

the typeof livestock o keep ina certain area 4 Vegetation maps show the distribution and type of vegetation in a region. This gives & clue onthe kind of social and economic activities that can be caried out in an area.

¢ Soil maps are very useful to agricultural officers as they can use the information about soil types to advise farmers on the type of fertilizers to use, soil requirements and proper soil management practices © Maps provide information on the relationship between phenomena or events. For

example, maps showing the location of volcanoes also indicate the connection between

volcanoes and carthquakes. Earthquakes are very common in areas with numerous volcanoes This will give people crucial information on the possibilty of occurring vuleanicity so that they can avoid seting settlements on such harardous areas 2 Maps provide background information as compared to present work, For example, maps showing distnbution of forests in the past may be compared to the present maps to draw conclusion on the extent of vegetation change through deforestation, afforestation or

reforestation, fh. Maps provide valuable information for statistical analysis, Therefore, they are very useful to researchers and any field of study

Essentials ofa Map

dena essentials of a map Essentials of a map ate the necessary prerequisites that a map should have: All maps in general require the following qualities or essentials 1 Title ~The most basic component ofa map isis title. The title should refer to everything the map covers. It could be a basic name of a country, such as "Tanzania," or it could be more extensive, such as "Water Tables in the Westen Saharan Desert The title should clearly state

what the cartographer’s intentions and goals are; it should be specific, and it should not include intelevant information

• Seale ~ shows the relationship between map distanee and ground distance, For example,

the scale 1:100000, indicates that one centimetre on the map represents 100,000 em (1 km) on the ground. (There are three types of scales: (a) Statement seale — this is a map scale stated in words or itis a verbal scale. The words “one centimetre to one kilomette” is an example of a statement scale. (b) Representative fraction ~ this is a means of expressing the relative size of @ map or drawing by a fraction or ratio €g. or 1-100. This means that one unit on the map

represents one hundred units on the ground. (c) Linear seale/graph scale — this is a line showing the distance on the map that represents a given distance on the ground. A Tinear scale is divided into two parts: Primary section — itis placed on the left-hand side of the linear scale. Secondary section ~ this is placed on the right-hand side of the linear scale

• Key every map must have a key. The key is vital tool in understanding and

interpreting the map. The key shoukl explain every feature or symbol contained on the map. It should reveal what every marking means and sometimes provide additional information. For ‘example, a city may be represented by a large black dot of a certain size on a map, and the key may explain that this represents a city with a population greater than one million people.

4 Margin/boundary/frame— it is essential that all maps be enclosed in a frame for neatness,

• North direction/compass orientation — this is the direction towards the North in those

maps drawn to grid system, All maps must have a compass orientation, Because the primary purpose of a map is to provide and insight into directions, a map has 40 be able to show which way is which on a compass. Most maps have "North" at the top and "South" at the bottom, but all ‘maps should have an official representation of the compass orientation

• Date to give context to 2 map, the date of publication should be present. As maps are

continually updated with additional information and improved accuracy, it is important to know the time when your map was published. For example, viewing a map of Tanzania published in 1980 might still be useful but will not be as accurate as one published in 2014.

Reading and Interpreting Topographical Maps

Features on a Map. Recognise features on a map Topographical maps are types of maps which describe the physical (natural) and man-made (artificial or cultural) features of a given area. The physical features include relief, vegetation, and drainage, among others. Some of the cultural or artificial features are roads, railways, cities, towns, dams, schools, and many other structures built by man Relief features Relief refers to the physical landscape as shown by the configuration of the surface of the earth

that is brought about by landform features. The methods of showing relief in topographical maps include the use of spot heights, trigonometrical stations, contour lines and form lines Spot height This is a point on a map with its exact height above a known level e.g. from the sea level. The position and height of the points have been determined by surveyors. The spot height is marked with a dot followed by the numbers indicating height of the land for example 750. The units of

height, whether in metres or feet, are quoted in the key of the map as well as below the linear scale Spot heights are useful as a guide to the general relief of the area. The map user ean easily determine the high points of the area especially where the area represented on the map is an undulating plain or plateau, Trigonometric station (point) This isa point on a map with its exact height fixed usually on a hill top, mountain peak or other

visible positions. They are the highest points on any locality. The trigonometrical points are commonly marked by a triangle followed by the numbers indicating the height for example A725 Om the map, the Height ofeach station is written against a symbol. The units of height are no indicated but can be deduced inthe same way a spot heights Hill shading Ul shading isa method of presenting relief on a map by shading ills as sights shinning on

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= \ f= Ss Y — — WA = Hil shating Hill shading depicts the shadows that would be cast by high ground if light were shining from a cetin direction Layer colouring/tinting Layer intng/colouring is method af showing relief by colour. A. different colour is wed for cach band of elevation, Each shade of colour, o band, represents a definite elevation rang, The key is primed on the map margin to indicate the elevation range represented by each colour,

However, this method does nt allow the map user to detemine the ext elevation ofa specifi point—only the range can determined Hachures Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief? Hachures are sometimes used with contour lines, They do not represent exact elevations, but are mainly used to show large, rocky outcrop areas. Hachures are used extensively on small-scale maps to show mountain ranges, plateaus, and mountain peaks

Hachures are also used to show the direction and steepness of slopes. The lines are drawn to follow the slope of the land or in the direction m which water would run on them. SU OTT =

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"iy Ml Ninny THM = Hachures Contours and form lines Contour lines, sometimes called isohyepes,isoline or isopleth are lines drawn on a map joining all places with the same height above sea level. The value of each contour line is written om it They are normally drawn in thiek brown colour.

For lines are lines on a map which join points of approximately the same height above sea level. These are used as “fill-in” lines to show out the nature of the slope (form) of the land and the various landforms, hence the name “form lines". They are drawn by estimating the height of the land with the help of spot heights and trigonometrica stations as well as the contours.

They are usually drawn in thin brown lines and their values are not normally shown on them. Contours and form lines are the main methods of showing relief on topographical maps. For practical purposes, form lines are also regarded as contours, On maps of seale 1:50 000, they are normally drawn in brown colour. Spot heights and trigonometrical stations are also used alongside contours.

The contour interval is the difference in height between any two successive contours. It is also contour interval 1s usually twenty metres (20 m). ‘This information 1s indicated in the key formed by a collection of contours enables us to identify different types of landforms. The

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\ 300 \ 100 X an \ \ Contours indicating gentle slope A cross section berween Aang B Gente spe Step slope srt tprthe lope. The space between ey two svete contour ise than 5 cm Be. NY \ 2

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Contours indicating gentle slope © cross section between Cand P Sivep slope ma 2S 2 S\N a C2 B))))) sot devatnsare heights between contour A f° Nines, and are shown on laeeeie map as dots with a value beside them sO 0 Mean Sea Level (M,S.L.) When far apart, contour When close together, contour lines indicate a gentle slope. lines indicate a steep slope.

This i'n’ even e @ cnntat slope Ine show by Contours that’ ait evenly’ specsd, that is at look smooth. neu sope This i:also known as-uneven slope. tt is indioated by unevenly: spectd ‘contours. it tao'ean be silicic hy daa ian ig pS i a eT pu Eg (indinting. siédp dope) tal bebome imaie widely spaced’on the upper seétion of the land i a an a ab i My £7 \\\ Lil ff \\

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E r cei Concave slope slope and closely packed contours (indicating steep slope) on the upper part of the slope. On this

type of slope, the land is steeper onthe higher ground and gentler onthe lower ground. The slope

curves inwards, just the opposite of the convex slope. Concave slope Valley A valley is an elongated depression sloping towards drainage basin such as a sea, lake or swamp, and which may contain water or may be dry, On a topographical map, the contours indicating a valley form a "V-shape". The apex (sharp end) points towards the higher ground and contours open out towards the lower ground. ‘The pattem of contours also shows valleys at

different stages of development. A valley in its youthful stage is shown by contours that ate close together. The gap between contours becomes progressively wider as the valley reaches its mature stage and eventually the old stage rf Ss ie a MN) + a – $ Zot @ 7).

a e \, a iG 7 A e_ ‘B49 ie ! i “820. y a Some valleys may have rivers flowing in them as indicated by arrows in the figure above Spur A spur is also known as salient, {is a prominent projection of raised land from higher ground, such as a hill or mountainside into lower land. Then spurs sometimes interlock, and hence the name interlocking spurs. Spurs sre depicted by contours that form a similar patter to that of points towards the lower ground and the “V" opens towards the higher ground (soe the figure

above). By studying the values of the contours, one can tell which the higher ground is:and which the lower ground is, But ifthe values of contours are not provided, the shape of the “V Hill A Lill is an upland that rises above the general relatively ow ground but it sof Fess height than a h cp FO BRR tye 4 3 ee ee, SS ite — sm S wie The shapes of hills are quite variable. Some appear to have a regular shape while others are

imegulasly shaped are depicted by a group of concentric contours that give a hill a rounded shape.

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x ¥ Ahaghion —— / Fee et rae x Y Ridge Arie is fairly narow and elongated bill or range of ills with steep slopes onal sides, The top ofa ridge may have a number of peaks formed by hills that Form a range, Sone idges are wratersheds that separate rivers which flow in different dictions or parallel to each other: On Lopographical maps, igs canbe identified by closely packed and elongated contours that drop of he ridge, there is usually a section of gently sloping land called a shoulder.

RIOGE

wes a C= Col, saddle and pass A col isa small depression on a ridge or in a hilly area, which is located between adjacent peaks ‘of hill. In the position of a col, there are no contours drawn. A saddle is deseribed as a broad flat col ina ridge between two mountain peaks. The term saddle is sometimes used interchangeably with col. Their only difference is that a saddle is wider than a col, that is, the two mountain surnnits separating a saddle are far apart while those separating a col are very close

A pass isa fairly narrow but deep gap in a mountain range or between high hills in @ low land. It is Tike a deepened saddle or col. Its name originates from the fact that travellers across a hilly or mountainous country would use such a gap for easy crossing from one side of the hills to the other aw tJ en a> Ree i or Sy rma 2 tag A, Pian St FeO es 2 ee a Ace < SADDLE ex Watershed A watershed is a line separating headstreams, ic, river sources that flow to different river

systems, Its a boundary line. On a ridge, it would be the erest of that ridge. On toposraphical maps, a watershed is not indicated by contours. Its position can be deduced and traced along a line that passes above the last contours of the ridge. Is position can also be determined by examining the direction of flow of rivets originating from that highland

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) ei er ani a2 Watershed ‘The diagram shows two streams (A) that have joined together to form the main stream (B). Escarpment ‘An escarpment is a very steep side of an elongated highland. If it is formed through the process of lting i is aed fie scarp. Lobsel, the hime a et eft te whole highland with Very steep Mopes on one ade aplenty aed. gine slopes on the oppotte side Os \epoghiphical maps on ésarpmentis how by eloéely packed ebetout ot the scp side hat.

sept am lt wl ir, pel alr onto ge i Dip soe ff Hanae a B \ > Plateau This is an upland covering a considerably large area. and whose top surface is almost flat. It is ‘Ona topographical map, a platcau is shown es a wide area surrounded by a common contour of iste ight cn it te sn ig Sa ide Plateau R s Plateau R 8 Plateau Plain A plain isa continuous tract of relatively Mat land covering a broad area of lowland. Some plains

may be raised but the slopes are very gentle, Plains occur as lowlands and at the bottoms of valleys but also on plateaus or uplands at high elevations ‘On topographical maps, a plain is shown by contours that are very widely spaced. Some rivers, if present, may be seen to have meanders Lf Depression Clift A cliff is described as a steep rock face that is vertical or nearly vertical. Cliff are common in ‘mountainous or hilly areas and along the shores of lakes and seas, On topographical maps, clifTs

are shown by contours that are so closely packed that they appear to merge inlo one another. To emphasize the presence of the cliff, a spacial symbol is drawn on top of the contours as shown in the figure below.

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Summary ofthe relic features

The following diagram summarizes some reef features shown by contour lines on topographical maps. The summary can be used as quick reference when revising representation of relief features on a map ; Ve CG? 7 >? ¥ 7 ‘ w 4 Bx : Fe

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(ff a a 2) mu knee comets am eat avaity anno come can am ‘Some relief features are usually shown in the key. The following key shows some of the symbols that ae tied wo depict various relief featureson topographical mapa = ‘Sibel Bede = Bridge; ning. draw Footbridge —+—

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Information from Maps

Generate information from maps Description of relief It is important to be specific when describing the reli of an area represented on @ map, The following steps should he followed 1 Provide @ general description of the relief of the area. State clearly whether it is mountainous, hilly, a plateau, lowland, valley, ete. State the general altitude of the area by mentioning the possible lowest and highest points and their actual or approximate heights as well

as their specific locations on the map. You can get this information from contour lines, spot heights or tigonometrical points. Itis important to give as accurate height as possible.

2 Ifistinct relief regions occur on 2 map, the area should he divided into distinet regions, ¢-g highland, plateau, lowland, swampy area, ete, Each area should then be deseribed in detail by mentioning the features present in the respective area, Describe the slopes and ranges in their heights, the nature of slopes, types of slopes, general dircction of the slope and the landforms found in the area as well as their characteristics

• Locate the relief or landform features present in the area and describe their distributions

and locations on the map, ‘These features can be located by using gr references, points of the ‘compass or the nearest named places. In case of slopes, describe the type and direction of slope and comparative steepness or gentleness, Use the appropriate terms for describing types of slopes eg regular, convex, coneave, gentle, ete.

VEGETATION

On topographical maps, only selected types of vegetation are shown. These ate forests, thicket, bamboo, riverine trees (also known as galleric or riverine forests), woodland, scrub, scattered trees, palms and swamp vegetation.

The specific swap plants such as mangrove trees, swap trees, marsh plants and papyrus can be deduced from the type of swap shown on the map, The symbols on the map that are used to represent various vegetation types are often interpreted in the map key.

Describing vegetation When describing natural vegetation on a topographical map, first identity and name all types of vegetation shown on the map. Then deseribe each vegetation type separately. Indicate the location of each type of vegetation by using the grid reference or compass direction. For ‘example, one may state “There is a dense forest on the easter area of the map and mangrove trees along the river.” If some vegetation types are named on the map, ¢.g. “Nyandaru Forest”, use the name given to

locate the position and type of vegetation. The arca covered by particular vegetation should also be estimated and given It is important to find out the reason for the particular distribution. These reasons are deduced from the information given on the map, which is referred to as evidence. For example, an area with large permanent rivers indicates that the area receives high rainfall. This may be the reason for the existence of dense forests in the region.

DRAINAGE

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area. Drainage also includes other features such as lakes, swamps, canals, and ponds which are related to water. However, water tanks and cattle dips are not features of drainage because these features are built by people who also fill them with water. These constructed drainage features are also called hydrographic features. Map makers use blue as the conventional colour for water features,

Rivers and streams These are referred to as water courses in some maps. They are shown by blue lines. The size of a river is indicated by the size of the blue line. The thicker the line is, the bigger the river. The very thin lines represent streams. The names of some rivers are wnitten i blue print along the lines representing the rivers, Permanent rivers are shown by continuous blue lines while the broken blue lines represent

intermittent (seasonal) rivers. Ifa river appears to abrupily end somewhere on the lang, it means that it disappears into the ground at that point. This implies that at that point where it disappears then rocks are probably very porous or are limestone type or there is a fault Tine. Nocmally, a river ends in another river, a swamp, lake or sea. Rapids and waterflls, like river valleys, are relief features found along 2 river course and are therefore not in the category of drainage

features, The symbols used to show them on small rivers are not the same as those used on large rivers These should be carefully studied. The presence of waterfalls and rapids may indicate presence of alternating hard and soft sock along the tiver They may also imply presence of protruding resistant rock outcrops on the river bed or sudden change inthe slope of the river bed.

Lakes A lake is a body of water occupying a sizeable basin, depression or hollow in the ground. It is bigger than a pond. A lake with no indication of water Mowing out of itis regarded as an area of inland drainage Natural lakes are shown using a light blue shade of stipples. Seasonal lakes are indicated by a series of broken, blue, short lines with the word “lake” written on them or by the name of the lake. Man-made lakes (reservoirs) are shown by a dark blue tint behind a black line that euts

across the river. Sea A portion of an open sea is represented by a pale blue colour that is shaded with stipples. Its coastline is indicated by a blue line. Swamp ‘A swamp is a wetland with its associated vegetation. Swamps are common where the ground forms a shallow depression. There are various types of swamps and they are shown ky different symbols which can be identified in the key. The different types of swamps shown on 1:50000

maps of East Africa are: a. Mangrove swamps ~ these are found in the shallow parts of the sea shore, and around sea inlets b. Tree swamps ~ waterlogged areas that have a significant number of trees and some ther smaller plants growing in them, There are some water-logged areas where trees are so many that they form a forest. Such a forest is ealled a swamp forest © Papyrus swamp — dominated by papyrus reeds. These are common on plateaus and

lowlands Marsh — an area that experiences temporary flooding, and the land is usually wet and poorly drained, It is characterized by plants such as rushes, reeds and sledges, with occasional water-olerant trees. At the coast, where flooding is due to water, itis ealled a salt mash € Bog spongy water-logged area with a surface layer of decaying vegetation. The papyrus swamp, marsh and bog are all shown by the same symbols on a 1:50000 scale topographical map

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£ Seasonal swamp — a very shallow basin and flat area of ground that become flooded during the rainy period for some months, but which dry up during the dry season. On a topographical map, they are shown by a group of broken blue lines.

Ponds, waterholes, boreholes, wells and springs,

• Apondis a small mass of stagnant water that is commonly found along courses of small

rivers. Most ponds are constructed by people but some occur naturally. They are shown as dark blue areas on topographical maps

• Amaterholeis a shallow and broad pit that traps rainwater. Some waterholes are natural

while others are constructed by people to provide drinking water for livestock or wild animals. For coloured map sheets, the letters “WH” against a small blue circle is the common symibol for this feature. [fan alternative symbol is used, it can easily be identified in the key.

• Aboreholeis @ deep hole drilled in the ground for the purpose of obtaining underground

water, The initials “BH” against a blue circle are used to represent it on a topographical map.

• Anelfis a hole, larger than a borehole, which is dug in the ground for obtaining

underground water that is fairly close to the surface. This is shown by a blue citele and a letter “WW” or letters “We against it.

• Aspringis a place where underground water flows out from the ground to the surface

naturally. Its indicated by a blue cirele and letter “S” or leters “Spr” against it. New editions of topographical maps may have these symbols modified Note: These symbols are clearly indicated in the key of the map. It is advisable to always study the key before proceeding to identify and interpret the various symbols drawn on the map. Some modifications of the symbols may be expected. So you should not get confused by cramming the

symbols off head Invigation canals ‘An inrigation canal is a channel that is dug in the ground for the purpose of earrying water from @ river, well or Take to a farm. On maps, they are shown by blue lines that are usually written against them.

Ditches and drains These are trenches that are normally constructed m water-logged areas for the purpose of «draining water from the land. On a topographical map, they are shown by straight blue lines with some of them having definite angles. The ward “ditch” or “drain” may be written against the line Though water tanks, cattle dips and wind pumps are connected with water, they are not drainage features but are cultural features for saving water. The presence of many permanent rivers,

streams, lakes and swamps is an indication of high amounts of rainfall received im the area, On the contrary, if many of these features are seasonal, it implies that the area receives low rainfall.

Numerous watetholes, boreholes and irrigation canals in an area may also be an indication that the area receives low raingall and that it experiences water shortage. Description of drainage When describing drainage, one should first identify the various drainage features and name them.

Describe each feature in turn by describing the distribution of that feature in the area represented and locate it on the map, State the general quantity, volume or size ofthe feature and deseribe the characteristies of each, for example, seasonal permanent, big or small, ete when describing rivers, itis important to comment on the stream density, general direction of flow of the rivers, the sizes of rivers and stage of development, ie, youthful, mature or old-age. Wentify river

drainage pattems as well. Information from Maps in Relation to Daily Activities Interpret information in relation to daily activities Human (artificial) features on topographical maps reflect human activities taking place in the area covered by the map. Many human activities are in the form of “land use” which refers to the ways in which land is utilized in the area, The human activities represented on topographical maps include the following:

Agriculture Ariculture isthe cultivation of etops and/or rearing of livestock. In modem times, the term has been expanded to include fish farming, beekeeping and poultry farming On topographical maps, erop plantations are shown as light, green shading. A letter indicating the name of the plantation erop may be printed over the shade © g. “S” for sisal, “Su” for sugarcane and “C” for coffee. These symbols are also indicated in the key.

The name of the crop could also be indicated by the plantation name e.g., Tungi Sisal Plantation. If the name of the erop is not indicated on the plantation, it may be identified using other indicators on the map. For example, the presence of a tea factory, eoffee factory or deeorticatar may imply the plantation crop is tea, coffee or cotton, respectively. In the absence of any indicator of a erop that might be grown on the plantation, there is a possibility that the plantation

may be that of trees, 1.c., natural or planted forest. Small-scale farming activities are not shown directly on the map. However, they may be deduced fiom symbols, factories or stores. The presence of a tobacco processing factory or tobacco store implies that tobacco is grown in the area, The presence of flour mill or posho mill indicates that maize is grown in the area A ginnery implies that cotton is grown in the area. A cereals board may imply that people in the

area grow grain crops such as maize, millet, wheat, ete. Livesiock rearing is indicated by the presence of cattle dips, grazing grounds, cattle markets, ranches,, stock holding grounds, waterholes, a water tank in an isolated place, a slaughter house office or abattoir, a butchery, veterinary office, dairy farm, creamery and dairy Farming schools, and many others. Any evidence that relates to livestock rearing is enough to draw 2 conclusion

about livestock farming Based on the type of erops grown in an area, one ean draw conclusion on the type of climate experienced in that area For example, tea and coffee are usually grown on an area that experience high rainfall and with moderate temperatures. Crops such as sisal, millet and cassava indivate that the area receives low rainfall and experiences high temperatures.

climate of that area, Dairy farming indicates that the area has cool climate and receives high an area receives low amounts of rainfall. Thi may be a clear indication thatthe area experiences Forestry presence of forestry can also be indicated by features such as forestry training school, forest lumbering may be taking place inthe area Fishing On topographical maps, the presence of water body does not indicate the presence of fishing

wrater body shown on the map: The presence of the symbols of fish traps at the edge of a water body b ‘The named places such as fishing village, ish ponds, and hatcheries near a water body We can also look at the presence of Fisheries Departments, fish markets, Fishing Cooperative Society. a fish processing plant, ete.

Mining Mining activities are often indicated by a particular symbol that is included in the key. Words particular area, Mining, however, should not be confused with quarrying. Quarrying Quarrying is the activity involving excavating stones, sand or soil from the ground A special symbol with the word “quarry” written against it is used on topographical maps to indicate where ‘quarrying is carried out. This is different from mining and that is why both activities are shown

by different symbols Trading This is a commercial activity involving buying and selling of commodities. On topographical maps, itis indicated by letters “TC” which are initials for'Trading Centre in areas where there are settlements, Other evidences of trading include shops, markets and petro! stations, Transportation This involves the movement of people, goods and animals from one place to another. It is evidenced by the presence of transportation infiastructures such as roads, railway lines,

footpaths, tracks, airports, seaports, pipelines, ete. The symbols representing these structures are offen provided in the key Communication This refers to the means of conveying or exchanging information. The evidence of communication services and activities includes the presence of a wireless station, post office (PO), telegram (Tg), telephone (T) and telephone lines, and a satellite station.

Industries These are evidenced by the presence of manufacturing and processing factories or industries in an area, They may be shown and named on maps. Examples of industries include sisal and tea processing factories, coffee pulping plant, floor or posho mill, bakery, creamery, cement factory, motor vehicle assembly, fruit processing factory, sawmill, ginnery or simply the word “factory or its abbreviation “Fety” are all evidences of industrial activities

Tourism Tourism may indicated by such features as camping site, hotel, recreational grounds, game reserve, national park, museum, historical monument, tourist resort, historical sites and nature reserve.

Administration Various administrative activities can be identified from abbreviations on the map. These are siven in o list in the margin of the map, They include provision of security as evidenced by the presence of a Police Station or Police Post, judicial services as evidenced by the presence of courthouse, and other administrative offices such as District Commissioner (DC) and Regional Commissioner (RC).

Other human activities Besides the activities described above, there are other activities that people engage in on daily basis. These include teaching and provision of other education services indicated by the presence of school, college, university or training institution Health services are indicated by the presence of a hospital, dispensary, health centre or medical laboratory Religious services are indicated by the presence of church, mosques or temple. Recreational

services are evidenced by the presence of golf clubs, golf courses, stadium or other recreational grounds. Description of human activities When describing human activitics in a given area on a topographical map, the following steps should be followed: a Identify each activity and support it with evidence form the map b—Deseribe the distribution of the activity in the area of the map using conventional methods.

© Give reasons, using available evidence, for the distribution of and factors that may appear to favour the activity,

INTERPRETATION OF SETTLEMENTS

A settlement is a place where people dwell. On topographical maps, settlements are depicted by dots or blocks, which may be black or grey in colour. Dots are identified in the key as huts or houses. They represent semi-permanent structures that are typical of rural settlements in Africa Black squares or rectangular blocks depict permanent buildings like those built of stones or bricks and roofed with iron sheets or tiles. A collection of these permanent buildings in one area

is shown as a solid black This represents a town or an area with permanent buildings Description of settlements Settlements are deseribed based on their concentration or alignment. In terms of concentration, they may describe as follows:

• Dense – when there is high concentration of individual blocks or dots in 2 given area.
• Moderate — when f individual blocks or dots are neither high nor low
• Sparse—when individual blocks or dots are few and spread over a wide area

(On the basis of alignment, settlements can be described as follows: Nacleated or chastered In this pattem, settlements are in groups or clusters. The reasons why settlements are concentrated in a particular area include the following a. A Limited land for settlement b. Security and defence ~ m rural areas people may need to live in groups for collective defence ¢ Availability of social services such as educational, health, transport, and communication

facilities Availability of economic opportunities like mining, trade, employment, ete diseases or disease vectors such as tsetse flies, mosquitoes, ee © Fertile soils which favour agricultural activites Government policies ~ the government's land policies ean also have a lasting effect on location of settlements. For certsin reasons, the government can set up policies which prohibit ‘establishment of settlements in particular arcas,

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“fiat +e8,) ,7 * ok eet FN Nucleated settlement Scattered or dispersed In this pattern, the setthements appear to be randomly dispersed over the area. It is typical of rural areas where people own individual pieces of land and set up their own dwellings anywhere on their lands. It can be found in new settlement schemes. ‘The distribution may be any of the types Aiscussed above. The factors behind this type of settlement include the following

a Readily available land for settlement without any restrictions. b A fertile sol that attracts large population, The land is sub-divided into small plots Availability of water within easy reach by families 4 Generally reliable security over a wider area. There is therefore no need for group bo a Scattered settlement Linear In this pattern, settlements are set up in a line form along certain features such as roads, railways,

coastlines, ete, Some of the factors leading to development of this pattern include a. Presence of @ road, motorable track or footpath for easy transport. b. Presence ofa river that may provide water for domestic and commercial use © coastline or shoreline thet is favourable for fishing 4d Suitable terrain, eg. the foot of an escarpment where the slope is gentle and where they may be scarp springs for water.

@ Infrastructure planning like in plantations where settlements are set up in lines. \ e4 L~ “en e* \* on ; Linear settlement Besides describing the distribution of settements in terns of the density and paters, the factors Note: The description of settlement as dense; moderate or space is often termed as forms of one should not confase the tw terns wien refering to settlements,