Concept of Reproduction

fusion of gametes is called fertilization.

Merits of Sexual Reproduction

Demerits of Sexmal Reproduction

• ‘The sexual reproduction produces few numbers of offspring
• It depends on presences of twa parents
• lt leads to great chance of spreading diseases

7 Intakes a long time until offspring are produced

Asexual Reproduction

This 1 the type of reproduction whereby production of offspring is from single organism without the production of gametes. Thete is no fusion of gametes

Examples of organisms who produce asexually are amoeba and bacteria, Asexual reproduction

involves only one individual organism, That means no change of genetic material is passed fiom a parent to an offspring. The offspring are also identical to their parents In this Kind of reproduction, in same organisms, body part such as roots, stems or leaves may become reproductive body organs Depending on the type of orgonisms asexual reproduction may be of different forms or ways

• Fission
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Vegetative propagation
• Binnary Fission (Splitting)
• Suckers
• Bulbils

Binary Fission (Splitting)

This is an asexual reproduction in which an organism divides into two equal parts, which are identical to each other. Each part then grows to-attan the original size of the parent cell and hence become a separate and independent organism, binary fission in amoeba »- w UJ Fragmentation This is a form of asexual reproduction in which organisms (parent) breaks into two or more parts. Fragments grow and develop into a new organism with identical features as the parent

Example worms such as Nematodes and flat worms

Sporulation/Spore formation Sporulation is asexual reproduction by the use of spores. The spore develops fiom single cell as a result of mitosis, forming a structure known as sporangium. When the sporangium is truly developed, the wall bursts fo release the spores which when placed in suitable area they germinate into new organisms.

Other organisms, which reproduce by sporulation, are ferns and mosses,

NIN. NUCLE

torres er seca i sins od tr isa Budding Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a new organism arises aan outgrowth (bud) independent organism to attain the size ofthe parent. Examples: yeast and hydra WY ] oe: > Qo Nou F—ornieteatet

Yeast Hydra

Some flowering plants reproduce through the formation of stnuture called buds. Roots may form such buds, leaves or underground stems and such buds sprout to form new independent plants.

Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction found in plants in which a bud grows and develops into a new plant. The detached plant, root, stem or leaves at some stages grows and develops into an independent plant Artificial vegetables propagation: his is vegetative propagation, which occurs through man's manipulation. Man ean lear from plants’ natural vegetative propagation and can intervene and make propagation of plants artificially

Natural vegetative propagation: Vegetative propagation involves different parts of plants as discussed below. Such as: Bulb In this type each bud grows to form a shoot, which produces a new bulb at the end of the rowing season.

Bulb is a modified underground shoot having fresh strong leaves

BULBS IN ONIONS

‘enteral onion foliose a Tngitosina! section stormg¢ O—— bd aw sen ‘ntrentitons root eee Tubers These are short swollen underaround storage organs formed from a stem or a root, New tubers are made atthe end of the growing season but do not arse from old tubers.

Stem tubers These are short swollen underground stems, which store food, such as starch Normally, yam

POTATO STEM TUBER

porto stew ruaeR {f—- VP ee

Potato Stem tuber

Root tubers These are slender stems; creeping horizontally as they grow along the ground Surface. Examples: { stolom / sees 'Y 4 Lp le / wi These ate short horizonial branches, arising from the main stem or just below ground level Suckers contain food reserves, Examples: Bananas, sisal and pineapples suckers sehr O— Po athens oot Tap root A taproot is the main root that arises from a radical. Tap roots may become swollen and act as

storage organs.

‘TAP ROOT OF ACARROT

erin Bs ‘Short stom sorounded ‘plot aces Cortex Conducting strands ye Path Lateral oot ls Tillers These ate collection of shoots Grass plants consist of a number of tillers. Each tiller has a suumber of leaves, which arise from the stem of nodes atthe base ofthe leaves.

Leaves Some plants such as eactus propagate vegetative using leaves, When the leaves fall off from plant they develop adventitious roots and buds, which later may grow and develop into mature plants,

Merits of Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction results into an individual with the same genetic constitution as their parent
• Its offspring matures faster than sexually reproduced organisms

3._ It does not depend on processes of pollination, seed or fruit dispersal

Demerits of Asexual Reproduction

• Asexually reproducing organisms are at 2 great risk to perish or get destructed when

environmental conditions are unfavorable

• ‘The parents may pass undesirable characteristics to the offspring since only one individual

organism is involved in asexual reproduction

• Competition for resources such as food and shelter may occur due to lange number of organisms

being produced

Meiosis and Reproduction

The Meaning of Meiosis, Reproduction involves the transmission of genetic materials from one generation to the next insuring that species survive. The process of reproduction involves meiosis.

Meiosis is the type of cell division, which occurs in the reproductive organs to produce sex cells known as gametes In this type of cell division the parent cells has diploid number of chromosomes. However the daughter cell arising from the cell division has the half number of chromosomes a condition known as haploid state Therefore meiosis reduces the chromosomes number into half means from 2n ton, The Significance of Meiosis in Relation to Reproduction

Meiosis leads to the formation of reproductive cells (Gametes) such as ova and sperms each with half number of chromosomes of the parent cells in organisms reproducing through sexual reproduction.

It involves the possibility of exchange of pieces of genetic information between the paternal and maternal chromosomes of each pair leading to new combination of characteristics in the gametes It brings about variation when the members of each pair of chromosomes are separated from cach other independently (Random assortment) Meiosis leads to new combination of genes through the process of independent assortment of Jhromosomes occurring during meiosis

Meiosis involves number of processes from prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telephase. There are two meiotic divisions, the first and the second division. All the above named processes occur in both the first meiotic division and the second meiotic division.

First Meiotie Division

The first division of meiosis consists of

• Prophase 1

2. Metaphase I

• Anaphase

4. Telophase T

PROPHASE 1

(eo) SS) &)

METAPHASE 4

ANAPHASE 1

The following events occur during early prophase

• Chromosomes contract, thickening, shortening and become more visible
• Nucleus disintegrate and disappear

Mid Prophase I

• Homologous chremosomes come together (synopses) forming a bivalent

Late Prophase I

• Chromatids cross over by chiasmata which results into exchange of genetic materials

Metaphase 1

• Bivalent homologous chromosomes moves to the equator of the spindle

Anaphase I

• The two homologous chromosomes part company and migrate to opposite poles of the spindle
• The centromeres of the homologous paits migrate towards the opposite poles where they are

attracted Telophase

• The chromosomes reach their destination

+The spindle apparatuses breaks down and disintegrates

• Then the nucleus membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes
• The cell constriets across the membrane and divides inio two

Telephase I make the end of the first meiotic division

• At the end of this prophase the number of chromosomes in each cell is half the chromosomes

number cell

• Thisis the reason why first meiotic division is referred to as Reduction division

Second meiotic division

Prophase It

Centrioles replicates and a new spindle apparatuses formed

PROPHASE 2

Chromosomes migrate to the equator f the spindle

METAPHASE 2

W Se +The chromatids uncoil and the cel divides into two

• Chromosomes regain their dead like structure and the cell enter interphase, Meiosis results ito

the formation of four daughter cells each with haploid set of chromosomes

• It should be stressed that the four daughter cells formed has the half number of chromosomes

present in the original parent cell Reproduction in Flowering Plants, the structure of the Flower Some plums use flowers wo reproduce. The flowers contain all the parts needed for the reproduction process, Sexual reproduction in flowering plants takes place in the lower, Within a ower, thee are usually structures that produce both male gametes and female gametes.

The Structre ofthe Flower

A flowering plant is an angiosperm, which is any plant that produces a flower or init The sole purpose of the flower is to allow the plant to reproduce. Each part of the flower plays a role in the steps of reproduction. There are male gametes and female gametes. They are both ditecily involved with sexual reproduction. Pollen may spread from plant to plant but ean only reproduce with the same species of plants. Let’ take a look athe differet parts of the flower

=@ a ‘iis. Stigma

Anther Style Carpel

seamen {

Filament Ovary

r

Seal Ove

Receptacle ita

STERILE PARTS

Lets start with the sterile parts of the flower. or those parts that are neither male nor female. These sterile parts are not directly involved in the fertilization process. Technically, a lowering plant can reproduce without them; however, they do play important roles in helping with reproduction.

• Pedicel:The pedicel is a small stalk or stalk-like part bearing a single Mower in an inflorescence

The Some flowers have no stalk and are directly attached to the stem of the plant

• Receptacle: The receptacte is the place on the stem where floral organs originate and attach It 1s

the axis (Stem) to which the Moral organs are attached. In most angiosperms, oral organs are attached in alternating successive whorls, A whorl is an arrangement of sepals, petals, leaves, stipules or branches that radiate ftom a single point and surround or wrap around the stem

• Sepats:Sepals are the parts that look like little leaves that cover the flower before it blooms

They cup the Hower to protect it while it grows. Sepals are mostly green and in most flowers they resemble leaves. A flower bud is protected by sepals. Collectively, all of the sepals form the calyx Sepals may be hairy, for example in roses, or smooth, for example in hibiseus Some Aowers have sepal-like structures beneath the ealys known as epiealyx, for example the hibiscus lower

• Petals:Petals are the delicate and usually brightly coloured part that gives the flower its

character. Flowers have more than one petal, and the flower petals are collectively called the corclla, The colour and scent attracts the agents of pollination such as birds and insects, Fused petals farm a corolla that ean be tubular or funnel-shaped as in the flowers of sweet potato and pumpkin plants. Some of the petals of leguminous plants are keel-tike and they enclose stamens and carpels Sepals and petals are collectively referred 10 as the perianth,

Reproductive Parts ofthe Flower

The flower is the reproductive unit of some plants (angiosperms). Parts of the flower include petals, sepals, one or more carpels (the female reproductive organs), and stamens (the male reproductive organs).

The female reproductive organs The pistl 1s the collective term for the carpel(s). A carpel is actually three parts fused into one: stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma ig atthe top of the flower. It is sticky to catch the pollen Each carpel includes an ovary (where the ovules are produced; ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style (a tube on top of the ovary), and a stigma (which receives the pollen during fertilization),

The ovary is at the base of the flower. From the ovary, extends a tubular structure called the style and on the top of the style is a surface receptive to pollen called the stigma The stigma can take many different forms, most of them designed to help trap pollen.

QD v0 site vey The female parts of the Rower are discussed in detail below: 1, Ovary:The ovary contains ovules. Ovules are unfertilized female gametes. The position of the ovary in relation to the receptacle varies ftom one flower to another. The ovary could be either superior or inferior in relation to the position of the receptacle. A superior ovary is one that is positioned above the receplacte, for example the ovary of a bean flower. An inferior ovary is one

that is positioned below or enclosed within the receptacle. Examples are the ovaries of a rose and a black jack ower

• Sipte:The siyle isa long tube that attaches the stigma to the ovary. The length of the siyle varies

from one flower to another. This length determines the position of the stigma. In the maize plants, the style and the stigma hand outside the Mower

• Stigraa:The stigma isa glandular sticky structure at the tip ofthe carpel, The stigma is the tissue

into which the pollen grains are deposited. The branches of the stigma ¢orrespond to the number of carpels. Five branches of the stigma indicate the presence of five carpels The male reproductive organs The male parts of a flower consist of one or more stamens. Stamens are the male reproductive parts of flowers A stamen consists of an anther (which produces pollen) and a filament The pollen consists of the male reproductive cells; they fertilize ovules

nthe Faament The following isa detailed description of the female parts of the flower

• Filament: he filament is a slender stalk that supports the anther. ‘The filament may arise from

the receptacle or the petals. It supports the anther.

• Anther:The anther is attached to the apex of the filament, It produces the pollen grains that

contain the sperm needed for fertilization.

Types of flowers

Flowers are classified either as complete or incomplete Complete flowers have sepals, petals stamens and earpels. A flower with both stamens and carpe! is said to be bisexual. ‘The hibiscus Aower is bisexual Incomplete flowers lack some of the floral parts, Flowers that have carpels only are referred to as pistillate lowers. Flowers that have stamens only are referred to as staminate flowers.

Pollination

The Term Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of a flower. Pollen grains from the anthers are eartied to the stigma by wind, insects or birds. These are referred to as the agents of polation Pollination, an important step in the reproduction of seed plants, is the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) from the male reproductive organ to the female reproductive organ that contains the ovule (female gamete) or transfers it to the ovule itsel:

Pollination is a very important part of the life cyele ofa flowering plant. It is part of the sexual reproduction process of flowering plants, which results in seeds that will grow into new plants

Types of Pollination

Pollination can either be self or cross pollination:

• Self pollination:This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same

ower

• Cross pollination:This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of the lower to the

stigma of another flower ofthe same species

Disadvantages of self pollination: potential drawback is that both gametes come from the

same parent. If the plant is well adapted to a stable environment, the production of uniform offspring may be advantageous, However, inbreeding will result and if there are disadvantageous recessive characteristics in the parent, they are much more likely to be exposed than if the plant cross-poilinates.

Advantages of cross pollination:Cross-pollination is less reliable and mote wastefl than self

pollination, but it is genetically favourable because genes are transferred and variation increases

Factors that favour cross pollination and hinder self pollination

• Divccious plants: Some plants have Mowers that are only male – they have onlystamen. Other

plants of the same species have flowers that are only female – they have only earpels.

• Monoceious plants: Some flowers on a plant are only male: other flowers on the same plant are

only female, So, self pollination is avoided by a difference in the timing of their development

• Protandry: Anthers on some plants mature first, Pollination of immature stigma on the same

plant is therefore not possible

• Protogyny: The stigmas mature first
• Self-incompatibity: Pollination ean oceur but the pollen tube doesn't grow well, iPat all, sa no

fertilisation takes place,

Agents of Pollination

These are organisms or physical conditions that facilitate transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to stigmas, Plants, being immobile, normally requite agents for the transport of pollen, which are commonly wind, inseets, birds, mammals (bats, rodents, primates), and water. Insects are the most common animals that will pollinate a earpel. The main agents of pollination are wind, insets and birds, Wind pollinated flowers

Wind-pollinaied flowers are also those flowers whose pollen is transferred by wind from anthers to stigmas, Wind picks pollen grains from the anthers and transfers them to the stigma,

Structure of a wind-pollinated flawer:The anthers and stigma of wind-pollinated flowers are

exposed. This makes sit easy for wind to blow the pollen that can then easily land on the stigma Flowers of grasses are a representative of wind pollinated flowers, Adaptations of wind-pollinated flowers Flowers that depend on wind for pollination are adapted in various ways. Plants that are pollinated by wind have the following characteristics:

• Small petals with exposed anthers and stigma. In some plants the pelals are offen absent or have

dull-coloured petals that do not attract insects or birds, The petals and sepals are very similar in

• Large anthers which produce large amounts of pollen grains. Very large quantities of pollen are

produced to increase chances of pollination as much will be lost while blown about

• Anthers are loosely’ attached to the filaments and hang freely to allow the anthers to be easily

shaken by the wind

• The pollen grains are small, smooth, dry and light in weight and therefore easily carried in the air

by wind. Some pollen grains have bladder-like structures that contain air, thus, increasing their buoyaney

• Feathery stigmas with a larg sticky surface so they are more likely to catch pollen from the sir.
• Large and feathery stigmas, freely hanging out of the flowers, which provide a large surface area

on which the potlen grains ean land. The stigma may be branched or hairy to increase the surface

• Long. hairy style to expose the stigma outside the flower
• Nonectar produced because they is no need to attract pollinators to the lower
• Filaments grow long so stamens hang out ofthe flower and shake in the wind to disperse pollen

Ae, Feathery stigma Insect-pollinated flowers (bees, moths, butterflies) Insect-pollinated flowers are also referred to as entomopilous flower. The term entomophilous is derived from the word entomophily- which means to he earvied by insects. Features af insect pollinated flowers include the following

• Large, brighily-coloured petals which attract insects. Flower structure may be adapted for ane

particular of insect, allowing them to land and feed

• Usually seented; therefore they attract inscets tothe flower.
• Nectarines which contain nectar, for example, mango Mowers have nectarines from which bees

collect nectar for making honey, and while doing so transfer the pollen. The insects are guided to the nectarines by the nectar guides

• Sticky stigma that insects come into contact with and deposit pollen while collecting nectar. The

pollen grains picked by insects from other flowers stick onto the stigma. +The stigma and anthers are held firmly in position within the flower. This ensures that when an insect lands on a flower, the stigma is not broken. The stigma and anthers are located inside the flower where pollinators are more likely to pick up pollen,

• ‘The anthers are small in size and produce few but large pollen grains,
• The pollen grains are fairly large, heavy, sticky and with small spines, This enables them to

adhere to bodies of pollinators (insects or birds) : \ nN a Ss t 1 bee collects pollen on its body ay it feeds Flower pollinated by birds:Birds pollinate flowers when they search for nectar. Birds such as sunbirds have long slender and slightly curved beaks that they use to probe into the flower Pollen grains stick on the beak. The pollen grains are deposited on the stigma of another flower of the same species by the bird as the bird feeds

Fertilization

The Concept of Fertilization

Fertilisation is the union of the male and female gametes to form a zygote. Pollen must fertilise an ovule to produce 2 viable seed. Fertilisation starts when a pollen grain lands on the stigma.

Only after pollination, when pollen has landed on the stigma of a suitable flower of the same species, ean a chain of events happen that ends in the making of seeds After a male's pollen grains have landed on the stigma during fertilization, pollen tubes develop within the style, burrowing down to the ovary, where the sperm fertilizes an ovum (an egg cell), im the ovule. A pollen tube emerges from the grain, its growth being controlled by the tube

nucleus at the tip of the tube. It may grow downwards in response to chemicals made by the ovary (a response known as chemotropism). In a process called fertilisation, the two gametes join and their chromosomes combine, so that the fertilised cell contains a normal complement of chromosomes, with some from each parent flower, The fertilised ovule goes on to form a seed, which contains a food store and an embryo that will later grow into @ new plant The ovary develops into a fruit to protect the seed. Some

lowers, such as avocados, only have one ovule in their ovary, so their fruit only has one seed. Many flowers have lots of ovules in their ovary, so their fruit contains many seeds There are 2 types of seeds, Some are endospermic while others are non-endospermic. In endospermic seeds the food reserve is the endosperm, which is outside the plant embryo

Examples of this type of seed are maize and wheat. Non-endospermic seeds have food reserve

within the cofyledon(s) ofthe plant embryo, This occurs in broad beans Process of Fertilization in Flowering Plants During the growth and extension of the tube, thegenerative nucleus, behind the tube nucleus, divides by mitosis to produce2 male haploid sperm nuclei. The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and penetrates the embryo sac wall. Then, the tip of the tube bursts open, the tube nucleus disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei and what follows is

calleddouble fertilisation

• I male gamete fuses with the egg cell to produce adiploid zygote which undergoes mitosis to

form a diploid embryo,

• I male gamete fuses with both the polar nuclei to produce thetriploid primary endosperm

nucleus, The triploid nucleus undergoes mitosis to form the endoyperm. The endosperm stores food materials that the embryo utilizes for growth and during germination. Pollen ——- Generative nucleus Pollen tube — ets Polar nuclei Ovule Egg cell Embryo () sac \— Tbe nucteus Micropyle Sperm nuclei degenerates o The process of fertilisation Immediately after fertilization the ovule becomes the seed and the ovary becomes the fruit.

This is what happens

• The zygote divides many times by mitosis to produce anembrye. It differentiates to become

aplumule(young shoot),radicle(young root) and either 1 or 2eotyledons(seed leaves). It is attached to the wall of the embryo sac hy a suspensor

• The primary endosperm nucleus divides many times by mitosis to produceendosperm tisyue

In some seeds this endosperm is a food store for later use by the seed. In others it may gradually disappear as the cotyledons develop.

• To accommodate all this growth the embryo sac expands and the nucellus is erashed out of

existence, giving its nutrients to the embryo and endosperm.

• The integuments surrounding the embryo sac become the tough and protectivetesta (seed coat).

The mictopyle remains though so that oxygen and water can be taken in during seed germination.

• The water content of the seed decreases drastically so the seed is prepared for dormancy
• The ovary wall becomes thepericarp- the fruit wall the whole ovary now being the fruit. The

function of the fruit is to protect the seeds and to aid in their dispersal, e.g, by an animal. That is why they can be brightly coloured and sweet, animals will eat them and seatter the seeds either at the time of eating or when they are passed out of the gut in defecation, unharmed, A detailed aecount of what happens after fertilisation is given below

• Formation of the testa: The testa is also referred to as the seed coat. The two integuments of the

embryo sac fuse to form one seed coat, The seed coat thickens and hardens. Sometimes the outer integument forms the hard thick testa while the inner integument remains thin and transparent The thin transparent inner inteoument is referred to as the tegmen The testa protects the seed against dehydration, physical damage and invasion by microorganisms. The microphyle permits oxygen and water to enter the seed during germination, The hilum is a scar on the testa that

marks the point of attachment to the fruit.

• The formation of the embryo:The egg cell nucleus fises with the male nucleus to form a

zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis 0 form the embryo, An embryo is a rudimentary plant comprising the plumule, radicle and cotyledons

• Formation of the periearp:The ovary wall becomes thick and swells up with food substances

The pericarp develops from the ovary wall. The pericarp is often the edible layer in fruits. In ‘mature fut it may dry up or remain fleshy

• Disintegration of the floral parts:The sepals, petals, stigma and style wither, dry up and fall

off. In some cases, some of the floral parts may become fleshy and form part of the fut. The fruit retains sears atthe points of attachment 10 the pedicel and style

Reproduction in Mammals

‘The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Female Reproductive System

{In humans, like animals, female reproductive system is composed of:

• Ovaries: Ovary is situated near cach kidney. Ovary produces ova, estrogen and progesterone as

female sex hormones,

• Fallopian tube: it is also known as egg tube/oviduet, it 1s @ funnel shaped opening. Fertilization

hnormally takes place within this tube.

• Uterus:The two fallopian tubes unite to form an expanded tubular organ called uterus womb. It

ts there that fertilized ova implant and develop into an embryo. N.B. Placenta is formed as an embryo develops, so as to allow penetration of nutrients, gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and waste products of metabolism An cmbryo receives mutrient and oxygen gases from matemal blood circulation and give out waste product through placenta into maternal blood system

• Vagina: This is the posterior part of the female reproductive duct connecting the uterus with the

exterior. It isin this region that sperms are deposited, N.B. Placenta with an endocrine at the last period of pregnancy, it secretes progesterone like ovaries, which prevent production of ova and contractions of the uterine walls,

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

(( iN }) uterus

• Cervix

Sovary 7

H Vagina

Fallopian tube =

Male Reproductive System

The male mammal reproductive system is composed of:

• ‘Testicles: These are situated an a pouch of skin called serotum. They produce sperms as

endocrine gland it produces secretes male sex hormone called testosterone, Testosterone influences male secondary characteristics during puberty in mals.

• Sperm duct: It Is attached to each testicle, it acts as a temporary store for sperms. Each

epididymis leads ito a duct ealled sperin ductor vas di deferens

• Vas deferens: Is the structure, which earries sperms away from the epididymis to penis

4, Seminal vesicles and prostate glands:These are situated just below the urinary bladder and two stnictures called seminal vesicles, ch seminal vesicle has ube whch leas 1 the sperm duct Around the junction of urinary bladder and urethra a gland called prostate gland Ureter \ Urinary bladder \ J \ j y/ Ampulla X / , ks is Seminal vesicle Prostate – \S > Ejaculatory duct Bulbourethral gland — gas =F Urogenital diaphragm

Bulb ——__ Sis im (iB ves Corpus cavernosum \ f / 5 Epididymis _ Testis Corpus spongiosum : eee Glans of penis Penis

Gamote Formation and Fertilization

The Process of Gamete Formation in Mammals

Gamete formation: Puberty

(On average, female attain puberty (Sexual Maturity) when they are 14 years old and male when they are 16 years old. In both sexes, attainment of puberty is accompanied by certain behavioral changes as well as development of certain structures Those changes are known as secondary sexual charaetersties.

NB: Puberty can be defined as the period when male/female changes from childhood to adulthood, These changes are influenced by sex hormones that are testosterone in males, progesterone and estrogen in females, Secondary characteristics in males

• Hairs on their chins and pubic region
• Shoulders widen
• Voice deepens
• Pay more attention to female sex

Secondary characteristics in females:

• Enlargement of the mammary gland and hips
• Deposition of fat which gives them more round appearance
• Development of pubic hair
• Menstruation eyele
• Pay more attention to males (young men)

NB: At puberty sex organs become fully fictional in males and females, Gamete formation: During puberty stage is when both males and females are able to produce fertile cells which united (of male and female) can cause pregnancy, It is believed that female gametes are produced before puberty but after puberty is when they are fully matured and fertile while male gamete at large are produced during and after puberty that is

when cam cause pregnancy when united with female gamete, The Processes of Ovulation and Menstruation Ovulation: It refers to the release of ova/ovum from ovaries to the uterus. It is expected to occur at the middle of the menstruation cycle.

Menstruation Cycle: This can be defined as the period between one and next menstrual cycle (28 days) Menstruation: This is the discharge of mucus, epithelial cells and blood through vagina (3-5 days) whereby in humans is called menstrual cycle and in non-human mammals js called cestrus cycle.

The Menstrual Cycle

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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At the beginning of the cycle, the menstruation can take place between 3-5 or 7! day from the After menstruation oestrogen secretion mereases, follicle stimulating hormone secreted to encourage production of ovarian follicle (thickening) the uterine for implantation when fertilization takes place At the 14 (middle) day is when ovulation can take place and secretion of progesterone increases 50 as to thicken the uterine wall ready for pregnancy,

NB: Ifno fertilization occurs, the cycle starts again Placenta:This is the portion of uterus, which is invaded by the villi and the thickenes portion of the chorion, The chorion like amnion is a thin membrane but it has a thick portion ealled villi finger-like projection

Umbilical Cord

» Itconneets the developing embryo to placenta to the maternal blood system

• It carries two arteries and a vein of blood circulation of an embryo
• AN embryo uses umbilical cord for gas exchange, receiving nutrients and removal of waste

UMBILICAL CORD

Umbilical Cord, Placenta Uterus feats Birth

• It starts by a sudden fall in the level of oestrogen and progesterone resulting in periodic

contractions of muscular walls of the uterus which cause pains ealled labour pains

• Under the influence of hormones a child is given out through vagina

Copulation

• When a male is sexually stimulated, the spongy penis is filed with blood and becomes erect. The

erect penis is inserted into the vagina and moved back and forth, this movement stimulates sense organs in the penis and ejaculation occurs

• Ejaculation refers to the release of sperm into the vagina, it ean cause pregnancy when the fertile

sperm unites with fertile ova Fertilization:It can be defined 2s the process of uniting male and female gametes to form a zygote. The sperms remain alive for up to 48 hours while ova remains alive for up to 36 hours, Pregnancy:it refers to the situation when a female conceives, That is fertilization takes place to form zygote. Soon after zygote is formed its cell starts to divide into many cells called embryo. It takes 3-5 days for the zygote to reach to uterus for implantation.

Implantation:

• Reters to the process whereby an embryo attaches itself to the uterine wall
• Tttakes 3 ~5 days to implant Fully
• Afer implantation envelope is formed, the outer chorion, inner amnion
• Between these membranes of envelop there are fluids called chorionic Mluids and amniotic Muids

respectively, both fluids act as shock absorbers, protecting embryo from physical damage

Factors Which May Hiner Fertilization

‘A normal couple that is trying to start a family will usually be successful after a few months. However, a least one in ten couples do not conceive after a year or more of trying, There are many reasons why couples can’t produce children, some of them are

• Ova are not released in normal monthly eyele

+The fallopian tubes may be blocked/wisted

• The women may make antibodies that destroy the speim
• The vas deferens may be blocked

+A high proportion of the sperm produced are abnormal

• Very few sperms are produced in one ejaculation

Ways of overcoming these problems

• In Vitro Fertilization (IVE)

+ Bettlity Drugs

+ Artificial Insemination

The Concept of Artificial Insemination and its Importance

Artificial insemination, also known as Al, isa procedure used to treatinfertlitythat involves direct insertion of semen into a woman's womb. It is a process originally used on livestock that has been adapted for human use Tn human use, the sperm could originate fom the woman's male partner, unless the male is infertile or there is no male partner (ie. single woman or woman in same sex relationship) The most commonly used method of artificial insemination, is 1UI (Intrauterine Insemination) as

it has the best success rate. Other types of AL are:

• TUTPI (Intrauterine tuboperitoneal insemination
• (TT (Inisatubal insemination)

Artificial insemination is beneficial to couples or individuals in many circumstances, For

example a couple may be producing healthy sperm and eggs but not necessarily be able 10 have

intercourse (maybe duc to a medical condition). Some other scenarios where artificial insemination could be beneficial are listed below

• A-woman may want to raise a child alone – in this ease she would request a sperm donor to be

artificially inseminated +The female may be infertile due tocervical factor inferiiliy= the cervix is supposed to produce a mucus that helps sperm travel to the womb. With cervical factor infertility, the cervix is elther not producing enough of this mucus, or it is producing mucus containing sperm killing substances.

• The woman may be sufferingEndometriasts- this is when cells from the womb lining start to

grow in places they should not within the woman's reproductive system e g. ovaries or fallopian tubes, One of the possible results of this condition is infertility, Artificial insemination ean be successful in mild to moderate cases of this,

• The female could have semen allergy – this is rare but can still happen, due to certain proteins in

the sperm the woman may suffer an allergic reaction when the sperm makes contact. With IUL ‘most of the proteins would be removed before sperm insertion.

• The male is unable to produce enough sperm for successful fertilization,
• The man is impotent/ereetile dysfunction). and would therefore be unable to perform sexual
• The male could be infertile as a result ofa medical treatment – some treatments carry the risk of

infertility e.g radiotherapy. Before the treatment the male would have been given the chance 16 freeze some of his sperm

• The couple could be in same sex relationship – two women who want to raise a child together

would use sperm from a donor, which one of the women would receive via artificial insernination.

• Reason for infertility cannot be determined – IUI may be recommended to a couple that eannot

conceive even if no underlying reason for the infertility can be identified.

Multiple Pregnancies

The Meaning of Multiple Pregnancies, Multiple pregnancy refers to a situation when more than one ovum is released into the reproductive tract of the female, On this occasion it is possible for more than one ovum to be fertilized, consequently several viable embryos may enter the uterus where they are implanted and developed

The Causes of Multiple Pregnancies

Multiple pregnancies may occur naturally or arise as a result of reproductive technology involving fertility drug or during an [VF program

Causes of Multiple Pregnancy Include

• More than one ovum released into the reproductive track
• One fertilized ovum splitting up into more than one embryo resulting to twins

Difference between Identical Twins and Fraternal ‘Twins

Identical Twins: These are fully identical since they come from a single fertilized ovum, which has split to give two or four embryos and developing to give babies. They have the same sex and appearance.

Fraternal Twins:Resulting when more than one ovum (ova) are released at a time and are fertilized. They may have the same sex but not identical at al

Disorders of Reproductive System

Types of Disorders of Human Reproduetive System

Reproductive system is the one dealing with the birth of @ child. We have two types of reproductive systems, which are male reproductive system and female reproductive system, The main function of reproductive system is to fuse the gamete causing fertilization, Conserving the baby in a mother's womb till the day of bearing a child. Also is the one providing birth/bearing of achild There are many disorders that affect the reproductive system. These problems may be found in

both male and female reproductive systems, Disorders affecting male reproductive system are Impotence, Premature Bjaculation, Inflammation and Autoimmunity. Female disorders of the reproductive system are Damage to the Oviducts (inflammation), Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases (PID), Congenital Malformation and Functional Disorder The Causes and Effects of the Reproductive System Disorders Male reproductive system disorders

Impotence This is the inability 10 achieve or maintain an erection of the penis, A male could not ereet the penis even though he will touch the sex organs,

Causes of Impotence

• Impotence is usually psychological disturbance, It may occur any time during the life time of @

male

• Strong alcohol consumption and use of drugs
• Diseases also may cause impotence

Effects of Impotence

1 Impotence causes failure in performing the social act, thus one cannot have children

• May cause psychological disturbances to the person
• fan impotent person in married, impotence may lead to the break of that marriage
• It may lead to the contamination of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, gonorthea when a couple get out

of marriage to get sexual satisfaction

Premature Ejaculation

Premature ejaculation is the situation where a man reaches orgasm before penctration of the penis into the female track. Before inserting penis into the female track the male ejaculated long time outside the female track

Causes of premature ejaculation

1 Fear, anxiety and sometimes isthe first time to have sexual intercourse

• Psychological factors may also lead toa problem

Effects of premature ejaculation

• The person (male) fails to satisfy a woman
• May lead to the breakage of marriage when a woman finds another male for sexual satisfaction
• May cause psychological disturbances in the man’s mind

Autoimmunity This is a Situation in which antibodies are made, which attacks own sperm, thus reducing the number of sperms. It may lead to have small number of sperms inthe sperm store arca,

Causes of Autoimmunity:Antibodies react to one’s own sperm. It is not exactly known what

causes autoimmunity

Effeets of Autoimmunity

1, tt causes infertility to a person

• May cause psychological cfects to the person who suffering fom this problem

Inflammation It is the condition in which the urethra is blocked. It allows no movement of sperm out of the penis and also the urine

Causes of inflammation

• May be caused by swelling ofthe prostate gland
• Also inflammation may cause the problem

Effeets of inflammation

• Inflammation may lead to sterility (infertility)
• May cause psychological problems to the person
• May cause severe pain during sexual intercourse as oneman wants to ejaculate but sperms fail

pass through urethra

DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

DAMAGE OF THE OVIDUCTS (INFLAMMATION)

Oviduet of the female may be blocked and causes the female organs to do fertilization of an

Causes of damages to the Oviduct (inflammation)slt may be caused by the infections due to

‘different diseases, The infections may cause scarring, thus leading to partial or complete blockage of the oviduet

Effects of damage to the Oviduct (Inflammation):It causes infertility to the female. A female

may not have the abity to earryiconceive a child due to failure of fertilization of an egg in the fallopian whe

PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISORDER (PID)

This is the pelvic infection caused by bacteria, This condition eauses damage to the oviduets.I occurs commonly to women with many sexual partners and women who use the coil contraceptive method Effeets of PID:The condition may lead io infertility. A woman may fil to bear a child and ise does s0 the child will not be normal

CONGENITAL MALFORMATION

Some women are bor with blocked oviduct oF with no uterus (it mostly happens in very few cases)

Causes of malformation: This is a woman born with disorder caused by problems in the

reproductive system

FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS

This is a condition in which a women fails/unable to experience sexual pleasure during the sexual act

Causes of functional disorders

• The cause may he psychological
• Also may be biological one

Effects of functional disorders

• May lead to end in marriage

Possible Remedies of Reproductive System Disorder

Treatment of Impotence

• Ifthe causes of impotence are psychological, counseling may help to eure it
• Ifthe cause is biological. one has to attend hospital for medical check up

Treatment of premature ejaculation

• Counseling is the most effective way to be adopted to treat the problem
• Medical treatment may be applied to stop the problem

Treatment of Autoimmunity

This disorder is more difficult to treat

Treatment of inflammation

‘One/man should have to seek medical adviee or intervention

Treatment of damage to the Oviduet (Inflammation)

Surgery is the most effective way of treating this problem

Treatment of PID

• Ifa woman feels she has PID she should have to go to the hospital for the right treatment
• Abstaining from many sexual pariners so as to overcome more infections/problem

‘Treatmentof functional disorders

• Counseling is the most effective way that may be used to help the patient regain their confidence
• Patients may go to the hospital for further checks and treatment

‘Complication of the Reproductive System Lypes of Complications of the Reproductive Systems Mention 1ypes of complications of the reproductive system Mest women give birth normally and perfectly but some problems can and do occur in their reproductive system and causes efféets to the newly formed embryo. The problems/complications are abortion/miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy and still births also beeech birth 1, Miscarringe:This ig the loss of a developing embryo before six months are over. Medically

miscarriage is considered as the natural abortion. It may result from foetus not being fully developed, failure of the embryo to implant properly or due to deformed embryo,

• Ketopie Pregnancy:Occasionally the fertilized ovum fails to reach the uterus and instead

implants else where in the reproductive track. For example it can be implanted in the fallopian tube instead of uterus. This situation is known as ectopic prognancy.Only out of $0,000 ectopic pregnancies may be delivered safely

• Abortion:Refers to the premature termination of pregnancy. Abortion may oceur naturally

(miscarriage) or be induced Induced Abortions the abortion that is dehiberately brought out for medical reasons Spontaneous Abortiois the kind of abortion that occurs without humans or medical intervention, That is not mduced in any way. It 1s also referred to as miscarriage.

• Breech Birth:This is the situation where a baby is born feet or buttocks first, In such cases,

duration of delivery is critical, too fast delivery may result in damage and too long delivery may cause oxygen deprivation and if left for a longtime may result to death of the baby Sometimes it becomes necessary to remove the baby by other means such as forceps (surgical tongs) or Caesarian (C) section

• Cacsarian Delivery:This is the removal of the baby from the uterus using surgical means

through making an incision in the abdominal and uterine wall. Caesarian delivery ean be done when either the baby is too big to pass the female reproductive structures ar the mother's reproductive structures are too small Other complications that occasionally arise during childbirth and generally require management by an obstetrician may be described as follows:

• Non-progression of labour (long-term contractions without adequate cervical dilation) is

generally treated with cervical prostaglandin gel or intravenous synthetic oxytocin preparations If this is ineffective Caesarian section may be necessary.

• Fetal distress 1 the development of signs of distress by the child, These may include rising or

decreasing heartheat (monitored on cardiotocography), Shedding of meconium in the amniotic ‘uid and other signs.

• Non-progression of expulsion (the head or presenting parts are not delivered despite adequate

contractions); this can require interventions such as vacuum extraction foreeps extraction and Caesurian section.In the past a great many women died during or shortly after childbirth but modern medical techniques available in industrialized couniries have greatly reduced this totally

• Unanticipated heavy bleedingduring or after childbirth is potentially lethal n places. without

immediate access to high-level emergency care. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not rapidly treated by stemming the blood loss and blood transfusion.

Causes of Complications of the Reproductive System

Other complications that occasionally arse during childbirth and generally require management by an obstetrician may be described as follows:

• Non-progression of labour (long-term contractions without adequate cervical dilation) is

generally treated with cervical prostaglandin gel or intravenous synthetic oxytocin preparations, Ii this is ineffective Caesarian section may be necessary

• Fetal distress is the development of signs of distress by the child. These may include rising or

decreasing heartbeat (monitored on eardiotocography). Shedding of meconium in the amniotic uid and other signs

• Non-progression of expulsion (the head or presenting parts are not delivered despite adequate

contractions); this can require interventions such as vacuum extraction foreeps extraction and Caesarian section In the past a great many women died during or shortly after childbirth but modern medical techniques available in industrialized countries have greatly reduced this totally

• Unanticipated heavy bleedingduring or after childbirth is potentially lethal n places without

immediate access to high-level emergency care. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemie shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not rapidly treated by stemming the blood loss and blood transfusion.

Ways to Minimize the Occurrence of Complications and Disorders of the Reproductive System The following are the way of minimizing occurrence of complications and disorders of the reproductive system.

• Stop/minimizing amount of alcohol that we takeldrink may keep us away from impotence and

other infections that may lead to disorders m reproductive systems

• Practicing different duties/activities and participating in exercises also sports and games helps to

reduce psychological problems which may lead to disorders in the reproduetive system

• Medical check up between the pariners who want to get married to know their Rhesus factors

blood groups, infections and HIV/AIDS in order to minimize the death or miscarriage during pregnancy

• Getting early treatment of any infections like gonomhea, syphilis, bilharziasis, which may cause

damage tothe fallopian tubes and urethra in male and female Sexuality and Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behaviour

The Concept of Sexuality

Sexuality includes fonelness or readiness for or interest in a sexual activity Sexuality is the function of whole personality begins at birth and end at death it includes:

• How you feel about yourselfas a person
• How you feel being a man or woman
• How you get along with member of the same or opposite sox
• {talso includes genital and reproductive processes such as intercourse and child bearing

Social Cultural Factors Influencing Sexual Behaviour in Different Age Groups of People

Sexual Behaviour in Children

Factors influence sexual behavior in Children

1, Start at infantry when children shown their own bodies

• Also sexuality is shown at early age (play age)
• Children also do and lear from their fellow children on different sexual matters
• Education — in schoo! and community
• Initiation rites
• Religious beliefs

7. Mass Media

• Feonomie status— both poor and rich

Sexual Behaviour in Adolescents

Factors influence sexual behaviour in adolescents

• Early matriage

6, Moral decay

• Marriage breakdown and problems

9. Mass Media

Oneself Family and Community

• Getting a responsibitity of caring for a family at an early age
• Itcan degrade the personality of a person, For example prostitutes or rapists have no place to put

their faces in some societies To family

• Breakage of marriage
• Lead to conflict in the family or marriage
• Loss of particular relative if he/she contracts disease like HIV/AIDS,

Ways of Eradicating responsible Sexual Behaviours/Practices in the Family and Community There are several measures that can be taken to eradicate iresponsible sexual behaviours in the family and community, The measures include the following: » Old children should not sleep with young chileren on the same bed without strict follow-up by the parents/2uardians

• Keeping out of all situations culminating to sexual arousal such as watching pomographic

movies, alcoholism, meeting in isolated places, attending night clubs and accompanying ill sroups of people like homosexuals, harlots, and rapists.

• Adults, guardians, parents, and teachers should talk openly to children about relationships and

sexual-education matters to make them informed about the aflermath of irresponsible sexual behaviours.

• Close supervision and guidance of children
• Getting involved in age-appropriate activities (for example, sports, boys/gins clubs, afterschool

activities, and craft activities) to help keep one’s minds out of sexual mood and desires.

• Protection for children from scary or traumatic events, including media coverage of such events

as wars, bombings, or shootings; and

• Closely observing what your child watches on television and in the movies or is exposed to in

musi¢ and on the Intemet.

• Following religious teachings on sexuality

Appropnate Life Skills Required to Cope with Adolescent Sexuality and Sexual Behaviour Life skills are behaviours that enable individuals to adapt to and deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life. There are many such skills, but core life skills inelude the ability to

• make decisions, solve problems, and think critically and creatively;
• clarify and analyze values;
• communicate (including listen, build empathy. be assertive, and negotiate),
• cope with emotions and stress; and
• (eel empathy (understand and care about other peoples’ needs, desires and feelings) with others

and be self-aware. Some life skills required 10 cope with adolescent sexuality and sexual behaviour include the following

• Educating youth about health-related issues, such as alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use

nutrition; reproductive health; and preventing HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), Life skills education ean also be effective in preventing school dropout and Violence among young people.

• Referring young women to age-appropriate reproductive health services
• Promoting youth's livelihood through vocational training, reereation, etc

» Mobilizing and empowering individuals, families, and communities in order to reach, influence, and involve everyone to become a part of the solution.

• Parents and teachers strictly supervising teenagers at home and school, respectively.

examples for them to follow.

Family Planning and Contraception

The Concept of Family Planning and Contraception

Family planning 1s « decision made by a person frcely on how many children he or se may want to have and when she or he wants to stop. Contraception refers to prevention of conception that is prevention or preventing the fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete. Birth control is broad it includes measures taken to prevent birth after fertilization.

There are two methods used namely Artificial family planning methods and Natural family planning menthods

• Artificial Family Planning Methodsincludes sterilization, oral contraceptives, intra-uterine

devices, Norplant, diaphragm and condoms

• Natural Family Planning Methodsincludes rhythm, the basal body temperature and withdrawal

(coitus mterrupt)

Social Practices which Enhance Family Planning

Social cultural practices, which enhance family planning. include the natural methods of family planning, which are Abstinence This refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse or can be defined as refusal by sexually active male and female to have sexual intercourse

Advantage of Abstinence

• Itis the most effective method of preventing coneeption
• The approximated rate of failure of this method is zero percent

Disadvantages of Abstinence

Its said to be unrealistic for many to practice this method

Rhythm Method (Calendar Method)

This is modified from abstinence. N intercourse i done during the fertile period. These days can be courted or identified by counting the days between menstrual period and also by observing certain associated physical changes sueh as small changes in body temperature. A woman may also keep a written chart of her menstrual cycle for certain months and is taught how to determine the number of days each month when sexual intercourse must be avoided. Total

abstinence is about 7 days in a month

Advantages of the Rhythm Method

1 Tho method is said to be natural and widely aeceptable

• thas no cost
• Wis said to be 77-87% effective

Disadvantages of Rhythm Method

• The approximate failure rate is 20%
• requires good knowledge and good record keeping
• Italso requires a period of abstinence
• Irregularity of the menstrual period (cyele)

Temperature Method

This method is based on the changes of a woman’s body’s temperature due to her menstrual cycle, The temperature is said to drop during the menstrual period and remains low until the release of an ovum. A rise in temperature is noted at ovulation and sexual intercourse should be avoided at this time if conception is not intended.

Advantages of the Temperature Method

1 ‘The method is said to be 76-80% effective

• Iteosts nothing
• It does not require fiting and regular checkups

Disadvantages of the Temperature Method

• The approximate failure is said to be 20-24%
• Sperms released to a female tract a few day before ovulation may survive until ovulation
• regularity ofthe ovulation may cause fluctuation of temperature

Billing Method (Ovulation Method)

This method is based on the fact that the secretion from the female tract changes noticeably during the course of her menstrual eyele, The appearance of clear thin mucus in female tract secretions at ovulation is noted and sexual intercourse is avoided during these times,

Advantages of Billing Method

• Wis said to be 76-80% effective
• costs nothing (tis cheap)
• Itdoes not require fitting and regular check ups

Disadvantages of Billing Method

Regularity of ovulation may cause fluctuation of temperature

Coitus Interruption (withdrawal)

Coitus interruption or withdrawal 1s another natural method of birth control in wich « male withdraws his penis fiom a female tract before ejaculation. This method is one of the oldest

methods of birth control, Coitus interruption requires unusual degree of will power.

Advantages of Withdrawal

1, ‘The method is eostless

• tis reliable for 76-80% when practiced

Disadvantages of Withdrawal

1 ‘The method requites some degree of will power

• Ithas a high failure rate in case Nuid released from the penis just before ejaculation may contain

Viable sperms

• Sperms may leak from penis before is withdrawal even without ejaculation

Artificial Methods of birth controt

Barrier Methods

These methods prevent sperms from entering the female tract. These methods include: Condom:This is a thin rubber sheath, which prevents sperms from entering into the female tract Male condom is wom over an erect penis during intercourse and prevents sperms from being released into the female tract that way preventing union of sperm and ovum

Advantages of Condoms

• Condoms are suid to be 85% to 93% reliable when used properly (handled with care)
• ‘They may help prevention of sexually transmitted diseases such as fungal infection
• ‘They are cheap and easily and obtained

Disadvantages of Condoms

• Condoms ean tear and leak. In such cases they become useless

2 Acondom may slip off the penis after climax

• Condoms may disrupt the act of love making (reduce sensation)

Female Condoms

Female condoms are equivalent to male condoms in that:

• Iisa thin rubber tube with a close end which fits inside the fermale tract
• Female condoms are relatively new, so not much is known abou! them. They give a woman some

control and are said to have the advantages as those f the male condoms Diaphragm This is another barrier method that prevents entering of sperms into the female tract A diaphragm is a flexible rubber, which fits over the cervix and prevents entry of sperm to uterus. Itis applied with contraceptive jelly (cream) or spermicidal chemicals, which kill sperms. A doctor must prescribe this method,

Advantages of Diaphragm

1, The method is said to be cheap

• It can be inserted a few hours before sexual act

Disadvantages of Diaphragm

• The diaphragm must be fitted by a doctor and training is required for the woman to fit it
• Indisrupis spontaneity
• [occasionally causes pain in the abdomen
• Itneeds check up after every six (6) months
• [should be left in place six hours after intercourse

Spermicidal These are chemicals, which kills sperms, Spermicidal foam, or spermicidal jelly is placed in an applicator, which i inserted and emptied into the female tract just before sequal intercourse These kill sperm and block cervix.

Advantages of Spermicidal

• tis cheap
• tris effeetive for about an hour

Disadvantages of Spermicidal

• itis messy
• [thas a high failure rate if used on its own,

The pill This 15 one of the most widely used contraceptive methods. The pill is an oral contraceptive by synthetic oestogen and progesterone taken daily by the female It function by suppressing the hormmal release of gonadotropins from the pituitary. These synthetic hormones prevent the ovulation process, thus hindering fertilization,

Advantages of the pill

• The pill is said (o be very effective ic. it is about 98% successfil
• A woman has contol over the method
• thas no interference with sexual intercourse

Disadvantages of the pill

• {tis not suitable for all women. There may be increased risk of blood clotting in some women
• itis not recommended for older women or women who smoke
• Short term side effeets of the pill include nausea, weight gain, tissue swelling, fluid retention and

minor headaches The Importance of Male Involvement in Family Planning People go for family planning or control for a number of reasons. Among these are:

• To ensure both partners are healthy and observe medical measures that are advised, giving

enough time for a mother's full recovery after giving birth

• Ability to eater for the needs of many children
• Couples decide to practice child spac so that they ean eater for their needs
• Helps to improve the health of a mother by helping women to avoid pregnancy at carly age,

unwanted pregnancies and to become pregnant at late age of 35 years

Importance of Family Planing and Contraception

• Some family planning methods help to prevent the transmission of HIV and sexually transmitted

infections

• Family planning reduces the need far unsafe abortion
• Family planning reinforces people's rights to determine the number and spacing of their children
• Family planning helps to build the health of 2 mother
• Family planning enables the couple to be able to handle the family by catering to the needs of

family

Maternal and Child Care

The Concept of Maternal and Child Care

A pregnant mother needs a Tot of eare and consideration for the best of her health and that of the child, Basically there are two types of care given to pregnant mother. These are pre-natal and postnatal care. The care given before birth is called pre-natal care and the care given during birth is called natal care. But a pregnant mother also needs a care and support after birth of the child, this kind of care and support provided afer birth is called postnatal care

Maternal care during pregnancy (Pre-natal care) Pre-natal care means before birth; therefore pre-natal care means a care given to a pregnant woman before delivery Things to be done by a pregnant mother

• Visit ante-natal elinie for counseling
• Maintain general body cleanliness all the time
• Have enough rest
• Wear lose-fitting dresses and low holed shoes for comfort
• Eat well balanced dict containing al types of food

Things to be avoided by a pregnant mother

• Doing tiresome and manual work Example lifting heavy loads
• Taking any medicine not prescribed by the doctor
• Taking drugs such as alcohol, cigarettes which could be detrimental to the unborn baby
• Tight clothes and high heeled shoes
• Avoid situations leading to chances of contracting venereal diseases such as gonorthea, syphilis

and AIDS which might afféet the baby

• Avoid stressful situation

Care during natal period Natal period is the period when the pregnant mother gives birth to the child she has been carrying in her womb for about nine months. A number of things need to be considered during natal period

• Anexpectant mother needs to underge labor under supervision of a trained nurse or trained birth

attendant whenever this is possible

• If any complications oceur that can not be solved by either a trained nurse or a trained birth

atfendant arises, an expectant mother should be referred (o the health center or hospital for medical assistance

• Most births are perfectly normal but problems can and do occur. When problems arise, modem

delivery facilities or techniques such as Caesarean section and vacuum extraction are used. Care should be taken not to damage any organ of the baby or the mother

• In case a newborn baby is pre-mature appropriate services should be given to it so as to help it

accomplish 2 normal pattern of growth and development Post-natal services to the mother and the child These are care and services provided to the mother and the newborn child after birth. After birth 4 mother has another big responsibility and role of breast-feeding the child Also a mother should attend post-natal clinic for medical checks and immuntzation of the child Balanced diet should be supplied to a lactating mother so as to ensure that she gets enough

nutrition for her benefit and ultimately that of the child. Proper nutrition will help her to restore the tissue wor out during the natal period. This helps also the newhorn baby to have enough milk from its mother. The health of both the mother and her child should be seriously taken care of, Child health eare Mothers should breast-feed the child whenever possible, mother’s milk is better than any other Food because of the following:

• tt comtains antibodies that are much needed to the child
• Incase the mother has no health problems such milk is free from contamination
• Mother's milk also contains much proteins and vitamins which are very important for the child's

growth 4, Breast milk is easily digested than other milk example bottled milk. Therefore children wo take milk from their mother rarely suffer from constipation

• Mother's milk is said to contain some chemicals which help in development of the nervous

system of the child

• Regular attendance of post-natal clinte for the child 1s very important. The child should also get

immunized against different infections and diseases such as polio, measles and other diseases

• The mother should follow medical advice on how to handle the child and in case of any

problems report it to the personnel concerned Social-Cultural Factors which Affect Maternal and Child Care in the Family and Community Mention social-cultural factors which affect material and child care in dhe family and community These include the following:

• Female Genital Mutilation (FGM):This is the practice of circumeising women, It is said to

have effects during childbirth. causes women to experience pain, bleeding, and shoek and may lead to infection

• Local Belief: These are cettain local beliefs and taboos such as banning women to eat certain

types of foods such as protein rich foods, which could help to build their health and that of the

child

• Working especially hard work such 2s cultivation: Hard work may cause several problems to the

pregnant woman such as miscarriage or pain.

• Alcohol Consumption during pregnancy:in most cultural practices taking alcohol is

considered as a normal behaviour. But alcohol during pregnancy affects both the health of the mother and that of the child Appropriate Ways of Providing Maternal and Chikl Care for People Living with HIV/AIDS

(PLWHA

LWHA,

These include the following

• To ensure frequent medical check up for both maternal and child
• To ensure they get well balanced dict
• Avoid sharing sharp objects like ntvor blades
• Counseling in order to help them deal with their Feelings of loss and grief
• To avoid discrimination for people living with HIV/AIDS
• Ensure the use of polite Language when providing care to them
• Wearing of gloves when cleaning their bodies and clothes