Biology Form One Notes – Safety in Our Environment
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TOPIC TWO
SAFETY IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
First Aid
‘The Meaning and Importance of First Aid at Home and at School
First Aid is an immediate help which is given toa sick or injured person before sending hiner
to the hospital for further treatment
FIRST AID KIT
Importance of First Aid
a. Saves life
b. Reduces fear of death
. Brings hope and encouragement to the patient
4. Relieves the vitim’s pain
Prevents the illness or injury from becoming worse
Helps a person to recover from shock
fg It shows spirit oF helping each other
Components ofthe First Aid Kit and their Uses
First Aid kit is small box which is used to keep instruments and chemicals for First Aid. The
first Aid kit should be placed in a safe and accessible place.
Components of the First Aid kit
+ A pair of scissors
+ Gauze
+ Assorted bandages
+ Adhesive plasters
+ Cotton woo!
+ New razor blade
+ Gentian violet (GV)
+ Petroleum jelly of Vaseline
+ Safety pins
+ lodine tincture o spirit
+ Soap
+ Anti-pain (pain killers) .@ Panadol
+ Sterilized forceps and pins
+ Liniment
+A pair of tongs
+ Antibiot solution
Uses ofthe instruments and chemicals inthe First Aid kit
+A pair of cissorsi used for eutting dressing materials suchas gaze, bandages
+ Gauze: wed 1 cover the wound to prevent drt and micro-organisms from entering
+ Assorted bandages: are used for securing n injured part inorder o protect and support it
+ Adhesive plaster-are used for covering minor wounds/uts and grazes
+ Coton wool:s used for cleaning and drying wounds and applying medicine
+ New razor blade:ased for cuting any flaps of skin when cleaning the wound
+ Gentian Violet (GV used as an antiseptic to clean wounds
+ Petroleum jelly or Vaseline-used for teatment of burns
+ Safety pins-used for holding/securing bandages.
+ Iodine tincture or spirit:used for cleaning wounds o reduce bleeding,
+ Soap:is used for washing wounds, hands and medical facilities.
‘+ Anti-pain (pain Killers)-used to reduce pain
+ Sterilized forceps and pins:ae used for removing splinters and grit from wounds
+ Linimentused to reduce muscle pains.
+ A pair of tngs-used for holding pieces of bandages when cleaning the wounds.
+ Antibiotic solutions used for applying in the wounds for killing micro-organisms.
FIRST AIDER
“The Fits Aider isa specialist who gives first aid.
Qualities of the fist Aider
1 Shefhe should have ability to assess the problem and give immediate and appropriate help.
2. ‘Shethe must be able to act quickly, quietly, calmly
3. Shelhe should be sympathetic tothe victim
4. She/he should be able to recognize dangerous signs and give immediate help for example
<etecting immediately i -breathing has topped or is failing -there is severe bleeding-poisoning-
fractures
5. ‘Shethe should be able to help the injured person without unnecessary movement
Precautions to be observed by the First Ader
“The Fitst Aider should keep himself/herself safe to avoid dangers from the patient. Some of the
dangers that sshe may face include infection by pathogens such as viruses and bacteria So they
should:
+ Wear protective gloves to avoid contact with blood.
+ Wear eye protection
+ Wear masks and gowns,
First Ai can be rendered tothe victims of
+ Drowning
+ Muscle cramps
+ Bleeding
+ Poisoning
+ Hiccups
+ Suffocation
+ Bruises
+ Fainting
+ Bums
+ Sprain
+ Bone fracture
+ Snakebite
Procedures of Giving First Aid to Various Vietims
SNAKE BITES
A poisonous snake has two fangs one on each side of the upper jaw. The fangs are as sharp as
needles. At the root of the fang there is a poison gland. When the snake strikes, it jabs
downwards hitting the skin with its fangs and releases a few drops of venom,
Venom isthe poison ofthe snake The action of striking forees the poison out and injects ito the
vietim’s skin,
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Sign end symptoms
Immediate pain nd swelling arte bite
+The skin becomes purple One or two punctured points may be seen where the fangs passed
through the skin
SCORPION BITE
Scorpions are armed with single curved stinger inthe tai. Through this, they inject power
‘venom that may produce convulsions and temporary paralysis
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‘The affected are fees as though is had been burned with a hot spark
How to give fst Aid oa victim of scompon bite
1. Apply tourigust
2 Putie on the injured area to relieve pain and prevent spread ofthe poison
3. Treat for shock
4 Rush the person to the hospital
0G RITE,
When someone is bitten by & dog, kep the dog under observation to See whether thas rabies
Rabies sone of the worst isases known, Iti caused bya vias which is present inthe saliva of
the infected animal
1F the animal as abies, it wil become restless, excitable, refuse to eat and barking tone will
change. Later the do then tarts barking excessively.
How to hepa victim of dog bite
«Wash your hands wel with soap and water
Wash he wound thoroughly with soap and water to remove the animal’s salva using running
water.
+ Cover the wound with clean gauze.
+ Bandage it carefully
«Take the vit to the hospital
INSECT BITES
4. Spider bites: Some spiders have a harmless venom to man, But the black spiders can be
dangcrous to man, The injured person becomes weak and dizzy, fels nauseated and the muscles
of the stomach may become hard especially in children.
. Black and fire ants, bees: When a person hasbeen stung by eg bees, severe pains are Flt
immediately The person maybe shocked itching and sweling may follow
A victim of spider bite can be helped by sending him/her to the hospital.
How to help
+ Remove the insects sting
+ Apply household ammonia and ice cubes
+ Treat for shock
CHOCKING
‘Choking is caused when food or a foreign object becomes lodged in the windpipe.
Have you ever been with a person who is chocking? Did you know what to do?
‘When you are witha person that is chocking, first notice if person can talk, breath or cough. If so
stay with that person until the air way is cleared by coughing.
Caution: Do not try to slap the person on the back. The slapping may cause the food to become
‘more deeply ledged inthe wind pipe.
1K a person cannot talk or cough and appears to have a dificult in breathing, apply quick
atnloinal thrusts ie. Heimtich maneuver as follows;
+ First stand behind th chockingvitimn
+ Put your arms around the person placing you ists just below the breastbone as shown above
+ Giveaseries of quick, sharp upward and inward thrusts
‘These thrusts push in onthe diaphragm and the thoracic cavity suddenly decreasing its volume.
‘Air pressures exerted below the obstruction which projets it forcefully fom the windppe.
POISONING
A poison is any substance which can los of ones life or seriously endanger health when taken
it the body
In every household there are different kinds of things which are poisonous. Some are deadly
ven ona very small dose Others may be more of less harmless when taken in small quantities
Examples of poisonous substances at home are kerosene, disinfectants, pains, medicines,
antici ferilzers, ee.
First aid o poisoning
+ Look forthe poison
+ dent the poison
+ Neutralize the poison by giving the victim plenty of milk to drink or egg white or water.
+ Induce vomiting if the poison is not strong acid oral as these re corrosive substance
+ tf the problem is severe, rush him or her to the hospital
BONE FRACTURE
‘person witha bone facture experience the following:
+ Severe pin around the injure part
+ Lack of movement
+ Swelling
+ Fainting o sbock
How tobelp
+ Treat fora shock
+ Keep the patient absolutely quite
+ Prevent further damage to injured part by using a splint
BONE DISLOCATIONS
‘These are bones which have come ou of place ata joint.
How tobelp
Bring the bone back ino fixed positon
+ Bandage it fmm in plac so that it does ot sip out again
stiock
Shock i sudden violent disturbance ofthe mind or emotion
Causes of shock
4. Bad news
. Severe illness
Heavy bleeding
4. Dehydation
Severe burns
£ Accident
‘Ways of preventing shock
‘+ Lie down the person with his fet higher than his head
+ Loosen the belt and shoes
‘+ If the person is conscious give him some tea or any soft drink
+ Treat histher wounds if any
‘+ Stop any bleeding Keep the person warm if he/she feels cold
ELECTRIC SHOCK
How to help
+ Switeh off the electricity immediately
+ IF not possible to switch off the electricity, take the vitim away from the source of electricity
using a dry wooden material or rope
+ Loosen any tight clothes
‘IF the person is unconscious, apply mouth to mouth respiration
+ ‘Treat for shock
+ Take the person to the hospital immediately
BRUISES
‘A bruise is an injury beneath the skin. Bruises can be identified by pain, swelling or a mark
under the skin,
How to treat bruises
+ Wash your hands using water and soap
+ Wash the bruised part
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MUSCLE CRAMPS
Muscle cramps occur sa result of uncontrolled muscle spasms and contraction,
How tobelp
+ Lay the victim down
+ Massage the cramped area gently
+ Apply some anti-ramp ointment tothe affected area
«Ifthe problem persists seek fora medical help
‘Muscle cramp can caus,
DROWNING
y) c)
Fainting is caused by a temporary fall in the blood supply to the brain, sometimes brought on by,
+ Ifthere is no improvement rush the vitim tothe hospital
BLEEDING
How to help the vietim
(a Severe cuts
+ Severe bleeding with blood flowing out rapidly must be stopped at once by pressing with fingers
directly on the wound or pressing the edges ofthe wound together
+ Lay the victim down
+ Ifthe wound isin a limb raise it provided it is not fractured
+ When the bleeding has slowed down press a pad of material over the wound and tie it rapidly in
place.
+ IFblood oozes through, apply more material ontop ofthe original pad
(b) Simple cuts
+ Wash your hands well by using soap and water
+ Wash the wound
+ Cover the wound with clean dressing dipped in iodine solution and bandage the wound
(©) Nose bleeding Bleeding usually occurs near the tip of the nose. The bleeding may be a result
of diseases such as
+) High blood pressure
+ Rheumatic fever Or
+ Injury
[Nose bleeding is also likely to occur thigh altitude as a result of cold
How to help
+ Letthe victim st quiet. This makes the heart beat to slow down and hence reduces bleeding.
+ Lette victim lean the head slightly backward or make hiny her lie down on his! her back,
+ Presson the side ofthe nose where the blood is flowing for about 10 minutes.
+ Allow the victim to breath through the mouth
+ Apply cold, wet compression over the nose and face, If this does not work take the victim to the
hospital
BURNS AND SCALDS
‘A burn is caused by dry heat e.g flame of hot object. A seald is eaused by a steam or boiling
water, The treatment isthe same for both burns and scald except that in scalds any wet clothing
should be carefully removed while in burns clothing should be left in place. If clothes are
‘burning cover the victim with a heavy blanket to cutoff the ai supply
Dip the burning limb into clean cold water or pres the affected area gently with an ice block. Do
‘not break the blisters. Cover the injured area with clean dry cloth to keep away bacteria entering
the damaged tissue. If the situation is serious take the victim to the hospital immediately
(CHEMICAL BURNS (ACIDS AND ALKALIS)
How to help
+ Strip offall clothing which has been contaminated by the chemical.
+ Wash the affected area with plenty of water
+ Apply moist packs soaked in a weak solution of baking soda
+ Vinegar can be used for alkaline burns
Hiccups
Hiccups is due to involuntary contraction of the respiratory muscle, giving a characteristic sound
How to help
+ Pulling out the tongue
+The victim may swallow finely crushed ice
+ Holding a breath for along time may also help
+ Children can be given a teaspoonful ofa weak solution of sodium bicarbonate or lemon juice.
Safety at Home and School
‘Common Accidents at Home and School
‘What is an accident?
‘An accident is something unexpected that may cause injury and sometimes lead to death
‘Accidents may be difficult to predict and prevent.
[Below is a ist of some common accidents at home and school
+ Bites e.g snake bit, insect bite, scorpion bite and dog bite.
‘+ Bums caused by hot liquids, cooking pot, lamps, hot food, steam, burning wood, charcoals and
those caused by corrosive chemicals such as concentrated acids and strong alkalis
+ Falls, eg. wall falls, ree falls, bed fallin, ete
‘+ Cuts and scratches caused by knives, hoes, razor blades and other sharp objects,
+ Choking caused by drinks, food or objects
+ Electric shock due to unguarded electric outlets and lightning
+ Poisoning caused by taking chemicals and excessive intake of medicines.
+ Foreign bodies inthe eye, ear and nose
‘+ Drowning which may occur in very small amount of water such as baths, ponds, pit latrines,
wells and water tanks.
+ Nose bleeding, bruises, suffocation, fainting ete
Home environment
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Ways of Preventing Accidents t Home and School
‘Ways of preventing accidents tome md echeolincnde the falling:
+ Medicines and potential poisonous chemicals shouldbe kept out of reach of children,
+ Childe shouldbe monitored closely when paying.
«Shap objects like broken bots, razor blades and laborstory equipments should be well
isposed of
+ Laboratory chemicals should be labelled and if possible appropriate warning signs should be
indicated
+ One should not take medicine unless prescribed by the doctor.
+ Bushes and tall grasses around the house should be cut to avoid harbouring snakes, bees and
other dangerous animals,
+ Students should observe and adhere to laboratory rules.
+ Walls and tres that are ata risk of falling should be dismantled or cut down respectively.
+ Flammable substances should be properly kept.
+ Pits dug around the house should be buried. Pools should be drained if possible and all water
storage containers should be properly covered.
+ Avoid using charcoal to warm oneself during night when sleeping as continued inhalation of
carbon monoxide from the charcoal may lead to death
+ Buming candles should be put off when sleeping.
+ Players should adhere to game rules.
+ Laboratory doors should open outwards for easy exit in case of fire. Emergence door is also
necessary for this case.
+ Equipment like hoes, axes and knives should be properly kept
+ Tum off all the gas taps after experiment.
‘What do you understand by the term accident?
Answer the below
‘8. Mention common accidents that can happen at home and school
State the ways of preventing accidents
‘¢. How can you maintain peace and safety at home and school?
‘Ways of maintaining peace and safety at home and school
+ Avoid risk behaviours such s playing near deep ponds, playing wth knives alcoholism et
Dangerous things sch as dugs shouldbe kept away fom chiden’s reach
«Report any dangerous even that someone engages in
«Be postive and supportive to each other.
«Social problems occuring at home or schoo shouldbe solved keenly.
+ One shouldbe good o him hese
+ Parents should give ther children education on how to lve and interact with others,
Waste Disposal
The Terms “Waste” and Waste Disposal
Whats wate?
Waste can be defined as unwanted materials or substances that are Ie afer you have used
sornthing, Waste materials or substances ae unwanted because the good part of them hes been
removed otis not wed
Types of Waste
‘According to physical state, wastes can be classified as;
a. Solid wastes
Sludge wastes
Liquid wastes
4. Gaseous wastes
Sold wastes
These are wastes which comprise of about 73% ofthe solid wastes. Example of solid wastes
include house hod solid wastes such as vegetable, fut and garden wastes, paper, cans plastic,
bread wrappers, broken glassware, batteries from watches, radios, mobile phones, ete. and
junked automobiles,
Industrial solid wastes
‘These types of wastes include packaging materials, metal turnings, scrappers, plastics and junked
auiomobiles,
Medical slid wastes
These include packaging, used syringes and soiled dressings
‘Market, yard and street sweepings
‘These are wastes such as paper, glass, cans, plastics, and vegetable wastes.
Sludge wastes
These ate semi-solid wastes ie. wastes which are neither solids nor liquids, for example, a
‘mixture of livestock urine and cow dung
Liquid wastes
These are wastes which are inthe form of liquid or watery materials. They contain less than 25%
solid substances. Example of liquid wastes include water from sinks, wash basins and baths,
urine, industrial effluent, ol spills and agricultural chemicals e . insecticides and pesticides.
Gaseous wastes
‘These are waste materials which are released into the atmosphere in gaseous state, Examples of
gaseous wastes are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
Most of the gascous wastes come from industries and automobile exhaust fumes, laboratories
and burning of organic materials such as plasties and polythene bags.
‘Wastes can also be classified as
a. Hazardous waste
b. Non-hazardous wastes
Hazardous wastes: These are harmful wastes which can endanger the health of living
‘organisms. Examples of hazardous wastes include paints, engine oil, car batteries, used syringes,
soiled dressings, organochlorides, radioactive elements and heavy metal eg, lead and mercury
[Non hazardous wastes: These are wastes which are not harmful in that they do not endanger the
bealth of living organisms. Examples of such wastes include packing materials, papers, plastics,
cans, water from wash basins, baths, ete, vegetable, fruit and garden wastes and glass.
Furthermore, wastes can also be classified as;
a. Recycled wastes
b. Non- recycled wastes
Recycled wastes
‘These are wastes which can be used to manufacture new products. The used materials are
recycled instead of being thrown away. Examples of waste materials which can be recycled
include metals, glass, papers, cow dung, beer bottles and plastic bags.
Non- reeycled wastes
“These are wastes which cannot be used to manufacture new products and cannot be used again
eg, soiled papers and cotton wool
Wastes ready for disposal
Visit dumping sites and industrial areas. List and clasify the various types of wastes observed
a. By their physical states
b. Ashazardous and non- hazardous wastes
‘¢Astecycled and non-recyeled wastes.
Waste Disposal
Waste disposal isthe process of geting rid of waste materials that people generate or the act of
getting rid of unwanted materials and items of no value of in excess.
Basic Principle of Waste Disposal
Principles of waste disposal
1 Recyclable wastes should be separated from non- recyclable wastes
2. Greater precaution should be observed when disposing hazardous wastes and itis important to
separate them from other garbage
3. Itis important to use protective materials eg. gloves when collecting and disposing wastes
4. Food and yard wastes should be separated from other garbage so as to be delivered toa compost
site
5. Itis necessary to treat sewage before itis empted into the water bodies
6. ‘Sewage systems should be checked from time to time to control leakages
7. Radioactive wastes should be disposed off by putting them in tanks and dipping them in deep
Proper Ways of Disposing Waste
Methods of waste disposal
“Most cities and towns have waste collecting departments or private firms that gather municipal
solid wastes from homes and other buildings,
Incineration
This is the method which involves burning of waste products at high temperatures
Land disposal
‘This involves hauling garbage to an area owned by a community or a private firm, Land disposal
‘may range from unsanitary open dumps to sanitary landfills.
Unsanitary open dumps are poor methods of waste disposal because they cause environmental
problems such as
‘+ May produce bad odors
+ Ruin the area’s appearance
+ Rain water drains though refuse and carry harmful substances to nearby streams and to water
used for drinking
+ Decomposing wastes produce flammable gas called methane and methane explosions may result
Sanitary land fils are intended to protect the environment, The waste i packed firmly by tractors
and covered with specially manufactured materials. The covering is done in order to limit
blowing papers, odors, fires and run off of polluted water.
Note: A secure sanitary land ill is lined with materials that prevent water from carrying
leachates (dissolved substances) from the refuse into underground water supplies.
‘Waste bin collection
‘This i imended wo colt smal quate of wastes. The wast ins are placed long the
cords orin every rom or ose which in tum is emptied ino big wast bins
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Sewage sytem
Sewage is wat hat consis wae mater produced by human beings. Ii alo clled waste
vate, Sewage comes fom it nd sinks of homes, rears, ole bing and ates
Sewage sytem involves the use of colton pies oF pit lanes where the sewage is
peti enoved and waspord a sewage wok whet itis etd to mak it hares.
Reccing
Recyeling isthe process of reusing the material instead of towing them avay. The waste
prods ar sed to mantic the same orient pro’s suchas
+ Cardboard or cow dung can be used genet Biogas
«Terma canbe mehed and emule
‘© Organic wastes produced domestically or commercially can be composted.
+ Kichn fie canbe sed od animals such as op, ips, ctl,
+ Nevappers, magzns caren and pecking malar be edt manuf iss papers
«In Tanzania oe husks reconvened into a form of haroa which suse fr evoking
«Coconut and agricul was can be converted into paper
+ Jute wastes can be converted into ard boards
+ Sewage and factory wastes can be purified to an extent that can be pumped into storage tanks
and used forall domestic purposes.
+ Glass botles can be used for storing specimens or medicines.
‘Waste generation reduction
Waste reduction is deliberate effort to produce fewer wastes. For example, people can reduce
waste by buying items that can last longer or have less packing.
Effects of Poor Waste Disposal
‘The following are some ofthe effects of poor wast disposal;
+ Produce bad odors
+ Ruin the areas appearance
+ Decomposing wastes produce flammable gas called methane and this may result to explosion of
the gas which may cause a loss of material property and human life.
+ Rain water drains through refuse and carry harmful substances to nearby streams and water used
for drinking which may later lead to eruption of diseases like cholera and may kill organisms
ound in water
+ Poor disposal of clinical wastes on land fll site may encourage bacterial breeding leading to
possible infections inthe area
‘+ Unregulated dumps where wast is bummed inthe open can cause smoke and foul smelling air
‘+ Buming may also result into production of air pollutants which may affect the ozone layer and
possible cause of respiratory diseases.
The Concepts of Health and Immunity
Health isa state of physical, mental and socal wellbeing. It involves more than just the absence
of disease. A truly health person not only feels good physically but also has a realistic outlook on
life and ges along well with other people
ements of physical health
+ Nutron:Balanced diet provides all the food substances needed by the body for health growth
and development.
+ Exercise:Exercses help to keep the body healthy and ft, Vigorous exercises strengthen muscles
and improve the function of the circulatory and respiratory sytem Physical fitness benefits both
physical and mental health and helps the body to withstand stress.
+ Rest and slep:telp to overcome fatigue and restore energy to the body. Everyone needs rest
and sleepRest and relaxation are a important as sleep. After strenuous work or exercise a person
‘may need a period of total rest.
+ Cleanliness:Cleanliness prevents the growth of bacteria and other germs that can cause diseases
A regular bath or shower keeps the body fie ftom dirt and odour. I also helps to prevent skin
infections
+ Medical and demal care:Regular check ups by dentist and physician play an important role in
safeguarding heallh Doctors recommend that people seek medal care at first sign of illness.
Early care can result in quicker cure and lower meal costs
+ Avoiding risk behaviours:Careful observation over a range of lifestyle factors indicate that
postive changes can bring about corresponding change in health status Risk behaviours that
rood to be avoided include: Smoking: cigarette smoking increases respiratory diseases such as
bronchitis and increases risk of death from ling cancer and heart attack; Alcoholism: heavy, long
term drinking has several effects on the body. It affects nervous system, cause liver disease
(ciehosis), ete; Drug abuse: drugs can cause addition, long term harmful effets, disruption of
‘normal life and some can lead to death
MENTAL HEALTH
‘Mental health is as important as physical health and toa great extend depends om it
Elements of mental health
Emotional development
Experiences during childhood strongly influence a person’s mental health throughout life
(Children remain dependent for many years. At this period they learn certain guidelines for
relating to other people. Thus children develop the knowledge necessary to deal with difficult
situations in life. Ths knowledge helps them maintain good mental health throughout life.
Emotional development does not end when a person reaches adulthood. An individual’s mental
Inalth continues to change from time to time, These changes result from daily circumstances that
cause either pleasure or pain tothe person
Handling stress
Stress handling is essential for avoiding both mental and physical illness. Feelings of stress are
the body’s response to any threatening or unfamiliar situation. Causes of stresses include the
following:
+ Most severe stress may result from divorce or loss of job,
+ ‘Stress can also occur even in pleasant situations such as: Watching a football game, Waiting for
a lovely one to return from a tip, ete.
‘If not handled properly stress can lead to
+ Physical or emotional illness
+) High blood pressure
+ Stomach uleers
‘No one can avoid stress but certain things that can be done to lessen it include:
+ Regular exercises and sufficient sleep strengthens the body resistance to stress
+ Relax by resting
+ Taking a walk
+ Meditating
+ Working with hobby
Social relationships
Close personal relationships with friends and relatives provide opportunities for communication,
sharing and emotional growth Such relationships also provide strength and support for dealing
with challenging situations or personal problems
Importance of good health
1. Enables people to enjoy life and have opportunity to achieve their goal,
2. ‘Sets someone free from attack by diseases
3. Enables people to work effectively and efficiently
‘4. Good health helps people to participate in social issues.
‘5. Enables mothers to deliver healthy babies,
6. Raises the family economy which in tum ensures peace and security within the family and the
surrounding community
‘Types of Body Immunity and Their Importance
Mention types of body immunity and their importance
Immunity is the ability ofthe body to resist certain diseases and poisons. Immunity can also be
<efined as the ability ofthe body to defend itself against infectious agents, foreign cells and even
abnormal cells such as cancer cells
‘The scientific study of immune system is called immunology.
Immune system
‘The immune system comprises ofa group of cells, molecules and tissues that help defend against
disease and other harmful invaders
‘The invaders include disease-causing organisms (pathogens) such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
virus and worms. A key feature of immune system is its ability to destroy foreign organisms,
Teaving the body’s own health tissues alone.
‘The immune system consists of white blood cells, lymph nodes, spleen, liver and bone marrow.
‘Types of immunity
Basically there are two types of immunity
1. Natural immunity
2. Artificial immunity
Natural immunity
[Natural immunity is that which an individual is born with, Natural immunity can be divided into
categories, namely:
a. Natural active immunity
Natural passive immunity
+ Natural active immunity: This immunity develops in a body after a natural infection. After
infection, antibodies are produced in the body. The antibodies normally reside inthe blood or in
other parts of the body. The body can make more antibodies whenever the pathogen tries to
attack the body again,
+ Natural passive immunity: This type of immunity is achieved during development ofthe foetus
where antibodies pass from the mother to the foetus through placenta or through the mother’s
rill after the baby is born. The antibodies disappear from the infant a few months after birth
Artificial immunity
Atifcial immunity is that which an individual acquires during his/her life time
‘There are two types of artificial immunity
a. Artificial active immunity
b. Artificial passive immunity
Anifcial active immunity
This is immunity introduced in the body by immunization. mmunization is the process of
introducing a vaccine into the body of an animal in order to increase its ability to produce
antibodies. These antibodies protect the person if he/she is exposed tothe actual disease
+ Most vaccines contain disease-causing bacteria or viruses that have been killed
+ Others consist ofthe live germs but in a weakened form oF attenuated.
+ Toxoid vaccines are made from poisons produced by disease-causing organisms
+ These poisons are chemically treated so that they provide immunity without causing disease,
+ Some vaccines are made from parts of disease-causing organisms.
‘Vaccines have been developed against many diseases such as chicken pox, diphtheria, influenza,
measles, meningitis, mumps, pneumonia, poliomyelitis, cholera, rabies, rubella (German
measles), tetanus, whooping cough and yellow fever Vaccines can be taken through, injection,
rubbing or the mouth (orally).
Artifical passive immunity
‘This type of immunity involves the injection of serum into the body of an organism. Serum
contains antibodies that have been formed in another person or animal. It provides immediate
protection from infection and lasts for weeks or months and after that period there are no
antibodies lef inthe body and therefore no immunity.
Factors which Affects Body Immunity
State factors which affects body immunity
Factors which may lead to low of body immunity
1. Alcohol and other toxie drugs.
2. Lack of immunisation,
3. Lack of proper balanced diet
4. Inability ofthe body to produce antibodies and white blood cells
5. Pathogens of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
Personal Hygiene and Good Manners
Concepts of Personal Hygiene and Good Manners
Personal hygiene refers to individual cleanliness. It mirrors on how one takes care of oneself.
Good manners refer to acceptable person’s ways of behaving towards others,
Principle of Personal Hygiene and Good Manners
Principles of personal hygiene
+ Eating balanced diet regularly to maintain good health
+The body should be washed daily and hair combed regularly
‘+ Teeth should be brushed ater every meal
+The mails should be cut short
+ Wear clean and ironed clothes
+ Avoid risk behaviours like smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, prostitution and others
+ Wash your hands with soap before and after meals and after visiting a lavatory
+ Have enough sleep and rest.
+ Take regular exercises to maintain fitness
+ Underwears should be changed regulaely
+ Bedding should be changed regularly
Principles of good manners
1 Respect — an individual should have good respect such as: showing great respect to elders by
helping and greeting them decently; being polite and humble; and talking in a clear and calm
2. ‘Tidiness every body should look smart all the time. An individual should: keep the bedroom
neat; brush shoes; wear clean and ironed clothes; cut nails and hairs short; comb or plat the hair
nicely, ete
3. Discipline —an individual should be well disciplined e.g. avoid using bad language; cover, your
‘mouth when sneezing, yawning or coughing: and portray good postures eg. sitting properly in
class and at home
4. Good eating habits (able manners) which include the following: Eating at regular time
intervals; Avoid talking with food is in the mouth; Do not pile food up on your plate. Serve
yourself with a reasonable amount while considering others; In ase the food given is not good,
‘make an excuse that you are not hungry or not feeling well rather than showing or saying that the
{ood is not good; Don’t tell stories that will make others laugh when eating; Always wash your
hhands before and after eating
5. Putting things in proper order: All objects in the surrounding should be kept propetly and in a
right place eg: Rubbish should be disposed as required; Books should be kept in shelves;
Cooking and eating utensils should be kept well in the cupboards; Clothes should be properly
ironed, folded and kept.
Requirements of Personal Hygiene and Good Manners
Requirements of personal hygiene and good manners include towel, soap, comb, brush, basin,
toothbrush, a pair of scissors, razor blades, water and cosmetics.
‘Ways of Maintaining Proper Personal Hygiene During Puberty
Oualine ways of maintaining proper personal hygiene during puberty
Puberty is the adolescent period. It is the period when one experiences physiological changes in
the body. The physiological changes mark the beginning of adolescence Puberty begins the age
(of 10 o 12 years for girls and 11 to 14 years for boys.
‘Ways of maintaining proper hygiene during puberty
1 Both sexes should wash ther bodies regularly
2. During menstruation, girls should use good quality sanitary towels or pads and change them as
necessary.
3. Boys should undergo circumcision and females should avoid female genital mutilation
4. Underwears should be washed and changed regularly
5. Both boys and girls should avoid irresponsible sexual behaviours such as prostitution and rape so
as to keep away from sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
6. Hairin the armpits or pubic areas should be shaved or trimmed,
‘The Importance of Personal Hygiene and Good Manners
Importance of personal hygiene and good manners includ:
1. Reduces chances of pathogen infection
2. Enhances social acceptance in the society
53. Prevents one from geting choked whi eating
4. Maintains natural body state
5. Maintains personality of an individual in the society
6. One becomes respected by others
7. Maintains health ofthe body and mind
Infections and Diseases
“The Meaning ofthe Terms Infection and Disease
Explain the meaning ofthe terms infection and disease
Infection is the invasion of disease-causing micro-organisms into the body. Disease is the
disturbance of the normal state ofthe body. It is a disordered state of an organ or organism.
Infections normally lead to diseases.
Classification of diseases
Diseases are classified as:
1. Infectious (communicable) diseases
2. Non-infectious (non-communicable) diseases
Infectious (communicable) diseases
“These are diseases which can be transmitted from one person to another person. Communicable
diseases are normally caused by micro- organisms like viruses, bacteria, Fungi and protozoa, ete
Examples of infectious diseases include: malaria, typhoid, tuberculosis, cholera, gonorrhoea,
syphilis, ebola, AIDS, chlamydia, ete
“Many of the infectious diseases are transmitted by a way of:
+ Droplet of liquid
+ Ale
+Food or water
+ Sexual intercourse
+ Touch or contact e ringworm
+ An intermediate organism called a vector eg. malaria by mosquito and bubonic plague by rat
fea
Diseases causing micro-organisms can enter the body through mouth, nose, skin, vagina, anus,
penis, ears, eyes and open wounds.
Infectious diseases can be:
8. Epidemic disease -a disease that affects a larger number of people in a short period of time in a
region for example, cholera, meningitis, bubonic plague, rift valley fever (RVF), tuberculosis,
ete
b. Pandemic disease – a communicable disease which is wide spread over a country continent othe
‘whole world, for example HIV/AIDS, et.
‘c. Endemic disease – a communicable disease which occurs in an area continuously for example,
bilharzia, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), malaria (an endemic disease in tropical regions)
and cholera (endemic in Asia)
Non- infectious (non-communicable) diseases
‘These are diseases which can not be transmitted from one person to another. Examples of non-
‘communicable diseases include:
Environmental diseases eg.
1. Lung cancer
2. Asbestosis
3. Asthma
4. Coronary (heart) diseases
5. Alcoholism
Deficiency diseases
‘These diseases are due to lack of certain nutrients inthe diet. They may be due to lack of one of
the main food groups e.g:
1. Kwashiorkor: lack of protein
2. Marasmus: lack of both carbohydrate and proteins
3. Night blindness: lack of Vitamin A
4. Beriberi: lack of Vitamin By
5. Scury: lack of Vitamin C
6. Rickets: ack of Vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorous
7. Anaemia: lack of iron
8. Goitre: lack of iodine
9. Excessive bleeding (haemophilia) ack of Vitamin K
Genetic and congenital disorders e-.
1. Colour blindness
2. Haemophilia
3. Sickle cell anaemia
4. Albinisen
5. Down’s syndrome
6. Klinefelter’s syndrome
7. ‘Tumer’s syndrome
Ageing and degenerative diseases e.g,
| Long sightedness due to weakening of eye muscles
2. Anteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries)
3. Arthritis ageing of joint and bone issues
Mental illness eg.
1. Schizophrenia
2. ‘Senile dementia
3. Depression
Hormonal diseases eg.
1, Diabetes mellitus
2. Diabetes inspidus
3. Cretinism
‘Common Infections and Diseases
Mention common infections and diseases
‘Common Infections and Diseases include the following:
1. CHOLERA
2. MALARIA
3. TYPHOID
4, TUBERCULOSIS (1.8)
5, MENINGITIS
6, AMOEBIC DYSENTRY (AMOBIASIS)
7. PLAGUE
8. TRYPANOSOMIASIS (SLEEPING SICKNESS)
9. BILHARZIA (SCHISTOSOMIASIS)
10, ATHLETE’S FOOT
11, GONORRHOEA
12. SYPHILIS
13. CLAMYDIA
14, GENITAL HERPES
15, GENITAL WARTS
16, HEPATITIS B
17. TRICHOMONIASIS,
18. CANDIDIASIS
“The Causes, Symptoms, Mode of Transmission and Effects of Common Infections and Diseases
Explain the causes, symptoms, mode of transmission and effects of common infections and
diseases
CHOLERA
‘Cause: Itis caused by a bacterium known as Vibrio cholerae
Symptoms
1. Severe watery darthoea and vomiting
2. Body weakness
3. Fast and weak pulse
4. Low blood pressure
5. Wrinkle skin and sunken eyes due to dehydration
6. Rapid loss of weight
‘Transmission
Cholera is transmitted through:
a. Food or waterborne material contaminated with facces from infected person
b. Handling of contaminated objects
Vectors eg. les moving from human faeces to fod,
MALARIA
‘Cause:Malaia is caused by a protozoan called plasmodium,
Signs and symptoms
a High fever Fever may be continuous, regular or twice daily
b. Vomiting
Lack of apptite
4. General body weakness
Joint pains
‘Transmission
Malaria is transmitted by a female anopheles mosquito. The mosquito sucks blood containing
Plasmodium from the infested person and introduces them into the body of a health person. In
rare cases malaria can be transmitted through blood transfusion ftom the infected person to a
bealth person.
‘TYPHOID
Cause: I is caused by a bacterium known as Salmonella phus. The bacteria damage the
intestinal wall and other parts of the body lke gal bladder, spleen and bone marrow
Signs and symptoms
a. Mild fever
Slight abdominal pains
©. Diarthoea
4 Vomiting
€Ureeration and rupture of intestine
‘Transmission
‘The disease is spread through
Contaminated water and food
», Handling of contaminated objects
Vectors ofthe disease eg. houseies
TUBERCULOSIS (1.8)
‘Cause: .B is caused by bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria can attack
the lungs or any part ofthe body and destroy tissues
Signs and symptoms
a. Loss of weight
. Coughing
c. Fever
4. Chest pain
‘e. Blood inthe sputum
‘Transmission
Through droplet infection
b. ‘Through drinking milk from infected cattle
‘¢. T.Bis common in overcrowded areas with poor sanitation
Appropriate Preventive and Control Measures for Common Infections and Diseases
Suggest appropriate preventive and control measures for common infections and diseases
Prevention of Cholera
a. Wash hands after visiting toilet or latrine
b. Food should be well cooked and drinking water should be boiled and well filtered
‘6. Hands should be washed before and after eating
4d. Food should be well covered
©. Utensils should be washed thoroughly
£ Maintain general environmental cleanliness
Control of Cholera
The infected person should be isolated
Special precautions should be taken when handling the infected person
‘Vaccination is possible
‘Treatment
‘a. The disease can be treated by using antibiotics such as ftracyeline, chloramphenicol
b. Administering rehydration salt solutions
Effects
a May lead to death
, Extra medical expenses
«Failure to perform daily activities
Prevention and control of malaria
4. Spraying insecticides to destroy ull mosquitoes
b. Introducing fish cating mosquito into stagnant water eg. Gambusta that fed on mosquito larvae.
‘© Dining stagnant water to remove the breeding sites for mosquitoes
4. Use of mosquito nets to prevent mosquitoes fom biting people
Screening the windows with mosquito-proof wire-mesh to prevent entry of mosquitoes in the
house through the windows.
Wear longesleeved shits and trousers to prevent mosquito bites.
8. Mosquito larvae and pupa can be killed by spraying oil into stagnant water that cannot be
drained
1. Taking regular weekly doses of preventive drugs to kill parasites on enty
{Cutting bushes around the houses to destoy shelter for mosquitoes
4 Using mosquito repellents to fle away the mosquitoes
Treatment
Antimalarial drugs can be used to treat the disease eg. quinine, fasider, meflaguine,
chloroquine, ete
Esfects
a. Can cause death
. Can Lead to mental confsion in case of cerebral malaria
‘© Paralysis and unconsciousness
4 Drowsiness
Anaemia
£ Miscarriage
Inability to participate in economic activites
fh, Increased medical expenses
Prevention and control of Typhoid
a Wash hands after visiting the toilet
b. Food and water must be protected from dust and flies
‘e. Wash hands before and after eating
‘4. Drink boiled water and eat properly cooked food; fruits should be washed thoroughly before
being eaten
«Vaccination can also help to control the disease
‘Treatment: The disease canbe treated © by using antibiotics such
as tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ee.
Effects
a. Can cause death
b. May cause ulcers and finally rupture of the intestine
‘e. Enlarged spleen
Prevention and control of T.B.
‘Elimination ofthe conditions under which TB thrives e.g. overcrowding, poverty level living and
inadequate nutrition.
b. Observing general personal hygiene, especially when coughing and sneezing.
‘c. Early BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) Vaccine The Vaceine may be used for either of two
reasons:(i) Protecting newly-born babies or children at particular risk of infection (i)
Immunization of young persons or at risk groups inthe community.
‘4. Keeping children, in particular, away from risk situations.
€. The use of sterilized milk and pasteurized day products
£ Contact tracing so that risk to others may be minimized
‘Treatment: Antibiotics such as streptomycin can be used to cure the disease
Effects of TB
Causes a numberof deaths
b. Abscess full of pus may form near the lamp in the spine
€. Shortening and thickening of the chest in ease of TB ofthe spine.
4. Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDs)
The Meaning of HIV/AIDs, STIs, and STDs
f Explain the meaning of HIV/AIDs, STIs, and STDs
g. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and AIDS for Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome. Iti thought that AIDS originated from central Africa. The HIV
Virus which causes the disease appears to have migrated Via Haiti to the USA. The term
acquired means become infected and immune deficiency means lack of immunity
hh. Sexually transmited infections (STIs), also refered to as sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs) and venereal diseases (VDs), are infections that are commonly spread by sex,
especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex and oral sex. Most STIs intially do not cause
symptoms.
4. There are more than 30 different sexually transmissible bacteria, viruses and parasites,
‘The most common STIs they cause are gonorthoea, chlamydia, syphilis, trichomoniasi,
cchaneroid, genital herpes, genital warts, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
and hepatitis B infection.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STDs)
Causes, Symptoms, Mode and Transmission and Effects of HIV/AIDs, STIs and STDs
Explain causes, symptoms, mode and transmission and effects of HIV/AIDs, STIs and STDs
Cause
Is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). The Virus attack the body’ immune system
‘weakening it and making it more susceptible to infections and some cancers,
I is important to realize that, infection with the HIV virus does not necessarily result in AIDS.
‘As with other diseases, some people remain symptomiless and are said tobe carirs.
‘Types of HIV Viruses
‘There are two major types of HIV Viruses, HIV 1 and HIV 2HIV 1 is the most predominant
virus and itis more easily transmitted while HIV 2 occurs in a small number of people in West
Arica, Angola, Mozambique and some pars of India. tis les virulent,
Where in the body can you find HIV viruses? The virus in the body ean be found in the
following body fluids: blood, semen, vaginal Muid, ters, saliva and urine and breast milk. tis
‘observed that semen, blood and vaginal Muids are more infectious.
Signs and symptoms of AIDS
‘A person infected with HIV may stat to show signs of’illness as from few weeks to many years.
Te infected individual may experience the following signs and symptoms:
Tremendous loss of weight
b. Persistent fever
e. Chest pain
44. Diarthoea for no obvious cause
Coughing for more than one month
£. Shortness of breath getting worse over several weeks.
fg Itchy skin rashes
1 Thrush in the mouth and throat
i Loss of hair
‘Transmission
AIDS can be transmitted through any ofthe following ways:
Sexual intercourse with an infected person
». Transmission from the mother tothe baby during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding.
‘Sharing sharp objects with infected people e.g. sharing needles, razor blades, tooth brushes ete.
AIDS-related complex
‘The infected person may exhibit a variety of conditions. Common bacterial, fungal and viral
infections atack the victim. These are known as opportunistic infections. They include diseases
like pneumonia, TB, meningitis, candidiasis, cancer eg. Kaposi’s sarcoma, et.
The Preventive and Control Measures of HIV/AIDs, STs and STDs
Oualine the preventive and control measures of HIV?AIDs, STIs and STDs
Prevention of HIV/AIDS,
1 Use the ABC method to prevent the disease: A-Abstain from sex B- Be faithful to your only
partner C- use Condom. This means that you are advised to abstain completely from sexual
intercourse. If you cant then have one faithful parmer and if this seems to be difficult then use
condoms,
b, Avoid sharing sharp tools withthe infected individuals
‘Blood transfusion should be done prior to HIV screening
44. Pregnant mothers should attend clinic so that they get treatment that will prevent HIV
transmission from the mother tothe baby.
‘€ Avoid all the risk behaviours, situations and practices that may enhance HIV transmission. The
risk behaviours include drug abuse, prostitution, rape, anal sex, oral sex, alcoholism, unsafe sex,
roaming in bars, guest house, ete
‘Management of STIs and HIV/AIDs
‘Ways of Avoiding Risky Situations, Risky Behaviours and Practices
Explain ways of avoiding risky situations risky behaviours and practices
Risky behaviours can be avoided by:
a. Practising safe sex
»b. Applying non- penetrative sex e.g, kissing, hugging, etc
‘¢. Delaying technique e.g. I’m required at home just now lets meet tomorrow
4d. Discouraging/negative words e.g I’m HIV positive
‘e. Discouraging peer pressure
Engaging in sports and games which distract one’s mind from concentrating to sex.
Showing a sense of dislike to express the way you are by wearing T-shirts, caps with various
messages eg. ‘say no to sex’ ‘practice safe sex’, ‘Mimi nimepima wewe je?’ “ALDS kills’ ete
Necessary Skills for Avoiding Risky Behaviours, Practices and Situations
Demonstrate necessary skills for avoiding risky behaviours, practices and situations
So far there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, but treatment is available. However, the disease can be
prevented by the folowing ways:
1 Avoid sexual intercourse. It is possible to live a healthy normal life without having sexual
intercourse
2. Use a condom correctly every time you have vaginal sex. It is often hard to be sure that your
partner i truly faithful and unaffected,
3. Avoid multiple partners. Don’t have mote that one sexual partner.
4. Avoid aleohol and drug abuse as they affect your decision making ability thus leading you to
unsafe sex.
5. Avoid sharing needles and other skin piercing tools. Needles can be contaminated and HIV can
survive in a syringe for a month or longer.
6. Avoid contracting other STIs because they increase the chances of HIV and AIDS infection. For
those who have been infected, they must get proper treatment from a qualified medical
practitioner.
7. Avoid risky behaviour such as going tonight clubs, negative peer pressure and taking alcohol or
<rug abuse. These might put you in danger of being infected.
8. Prevent mother to child transmission by: (a) counselling and treating the mother; (b) using
caesarean section as a mode of delivery; (e) use of alternative feeding (milk) instead of
breastfeeding; and (4) not sharing breast milk
9. Prevent transmission through organ and tissue transplants by screening both the donor and the
patient.
10. Prevent minor injuries which might lead to infection. This can be achieved through (a) use of
loves; (b) use of sterile instruments; (c) avoiding direst contact with contaminated body
‘uids:(4) proper handling of contaminated human waste; and (e) econtaminating soiled surfaces
and lined.
11. Effective treatment of the infected through: (a) administering anti-retroviral therapy; and (b)
prompt treatment of opportunistic infections
Care and Support of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA)
‘The Importance of Providing Care and Support to PLWHA in the Family Community and at
School
Explain the importance of providing care and support to PLWHA in the family community and at
school
Importance of care and support to people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) include the
following:
4 Itenables them to prolong their lives in case they are administered with ARVs,
b. Itreduces fear of death,
‘¢. enables them to perform their daily activities without feat.
1d. Inreduces depression and self dislike.
Necessary Care and Support Services Provided to PLWHA in the Family, Community and at
School
Outline necessary care and support services provided to PLWHA in the family, community and
at school
People who are infected with HIV need care and support form their frends, families and the
community, especially when they are il, Friends and family members sometimes worry that they
‘might be infected when caring fora person with HIV.
HIV cannot be passed on by touching, hugging, coughing, or sharing eating utensils It is
possible for people who are infected with HIV to live long healthy lives. You can help those who
are infected by:
+ showing love, respect and support;
+ knowing the facts about HIV/AIDS and talking openly about the disease;
+ helping to reduce stress and stressful situations;
+ helping to provide balanced and nutritious meals;
+ secking for support from family and friends as wel a from other people who are HIV positive;
+ encouraging them to live with hope;
+ encouraging them tobe active. Do not stop them from doing things they lke;
+ spend time with the sick person. For example help them to prepare their meals, clean their
rooms, make ther beds and take them to a walk ifthey can walk. Encourage family and friend to
do this to;
+ encouraging them to get treatment if they are sick. Most infections are easily treated and cured,
even ifa person is HIV positive
+ Cleaning their houses, utensils, clothes, ete;
+ trying to relieve any pain the person may be feeling, for example by administering painkillers;
and
+ ‘eating them with respect and dignity making them as comfortable as possible,
Precautions to be taken when handling PLWHA and STIs
There may be situations where you need to clean up body fluids or blood from someone infected
with HIV, Do not touch body fluids such as blood, stool and urine with your bare hands. It is
{important to use rubber or plastic gloves or other barriers such as plastic bags or thick cloth to
prevent direct contact. Make sure that you have these easily available at all times,
b. Wash the gloves or plastic bags in hot water every time after you have used them. Keep clothes
and bedding with blood, diarrhoea or body fluids away from other washings.
‘¢. Wash the bedding and clothes with soap. Hang them where there is a plenty of sunshine and air
circulation to dry well
4d. Do not share toothbrushes, razors, skin piecing instruments, or needles
‘€. Cover your wounds with a clean and sterile bandage. Buy disposable gloves so that once used
they are discarded.
£ Dispose off properly the vomits or bandages used when dressing wounds.
ig. Lear about the ways HIV can and cannot be transmitted. Talk to your fiends and family.
CContaet your local cline for more information
‘The Effects of Discrimination and Stigma to People Living with HIV/AIDS to the Individual,
Family and Society
Explain the effects of discrimination and stigma to people living with HIV/AIDS 10 the
individual, family and society
HIV-related stigma and discrimination exist worldwide, although they manifest themselves
differently across countries, communities, religious groups and individuals. Possible
consequences of HIV-related stigma could be:
+ loss of income and livelihood
+ Joss of marriage and childbearing options
+ poor care within the health sector
+ withdrawal of caregiving inthe home
+ loss of hope and feelings of worthlessness
+ Joss of reputation