Psychology: Stress and Visual Health

Psychology: Stress and Visual Health

• General psychology

Topic 04

• Describe the psychological stress in
• impacting the visual hearth Topic content.
• a) Define stress
• b) Explain what is alternative perspective of stress
• c) Explain stimulus-based perspectives and life event scales
• d) Explain response-based perspective and psychology of stress
• e) Explain post-traumatic stress
• f) Explain interaction perspective and coping scales
• g) Explain stress management
• h) Explain if stress makes patient susceptible to physical illnessDefine stress
• Stress is the body and mind's natural, non-specific response
• to any demand, threat, or pressure, causing physical,
• emotional, or mental tension. Triggered by challenges, it
• releases hormones like adrenaline and cortisol to prepare the
• body for "fight or flight". While short-term stress can
• motivate, chronic stress can lead to exhaustion, or "burnout".Aspects of Stress:
• Physical Response: Includes rapid heart
• rate, muscle tension, headaches, and fatigue.
• Emotional/Mental Response: Feelings of
• being overwhelmed, irritable, anxious, or
• unable to concentrate.Types of Stress
• Acute Stress: is a short-term, intense reaction to a traumatic event or
• high-pressure situation, often involving a "fight-or-flight" response. Eg
• losing your phone
• Episodic Acute Stress: occurs when someone experiences frequent, the
• stress become the way of life recurring episodes of high tension.

Chronic Stress: Long-term, unrelenting pressure arising from situations like poverty, unhappy marriages, or a demanding job.Explain what is alternative perspective of stress

• Alternative perspectives on stress reframe it not just as a negative,
• harmful force, but as a neutral, or even positive, experience that can
• drive personal growth, resilience, and enhanced performance. Shifting
• from a distress-only view to seeing stress as an adaptable challenge
• helps to manage psychological and physiological responses.Cont….
• An alternative perspective of stress moves away from the
• traditional view of it being purely a negative "fight-or-flight"
• physiological response to danger. Instead, these perspectives
• frame stress as a transactional process, a motivational tool
• (eustress), or a social/systemic experience.alternative perspective of stress
• Transactional/Cognitive Appraisal Perspective: Developed by Lazarus and
• Folkman, this view argues that stress is not simply caused by an external event, but
• by how an individual appraises that event. It is a transaction between a person and
• their environment involving:
• Primary Appraisal: The individual evaluates whether a situation is a threat or
• challenge.
• Secondary Appraisal: The individual assesses what resources (social, personal,
• environmental) they have to cope with the situation.Cont…
• Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory:
• Proposed by Hobfoll, this approach views stress as a reaction
• to the threat or actual loss of resources (e.g., social support,
• money, time, health). Rather than just reacting to pressure,
• stress occurs when people feel their valuable assets are being
• depleted.Cont…
• Eustress (Positive Stress) Perspective: This perspective
• recognizes that not all stress is harmful (distress). Eustress is
• positive, moderate stress that acts as a motivator, increasing
• focus and energy to achieve goals, such as training for a
• marathon or meeting a challenging deadline.Cont.
• The "Relaxed State" or Thought-Based Perspective: This
• suggests that stress is not caused by external circumstances, but
• by our own "thinking" filling our mental capacity. It highlights
• the "freedom of thought" to choose how we interpret
• situations, arguing that by not filling our mental space with
• stressful thoughts, we can remain in a natural state of calm.Cont…..
• Systems/Allostatic Load Perspective: This views stress as a
• "systems-level" problem where the body's attempt to maintain
• stability (homeostasis) becomes overloaded over time, leading
• to "allostatic load" or "cacostasis"—a state where the cost of
• adaptation leads to damage.Cont..
• Gender-Specific (Tend-and-Befriend) Perspective: An
• alternative to the "fight-or-flight" response, this theory
• suggests that under stress, people (often women) may engage

in "tend-and-befriend" behaviors protecting offspring and seeking social support rather than just running or fightingExplain stimulus-based perspectives and life event scales

• Stimulus-based perspectives and life event scales
• represent a, primarily, "cause-focused" approach to
• understanding stress in psychology. This viewpoint defines
• stress not by an individual's reaction, but by the external

events or situations stressors that place significant demands on a person, requiring adaptation, change, or coping.Stimulus-based perspectives on stress Define it as an external, objective event, situation, or life change that demands a person to adapt, often exceeding their resources. This perspective emphasizes measuring the stressor itself rather than the individual's subjective emotional reaction to it.CONT… The stimulus-based perspective (developed largely in the 1960s) argues that stress is an independent variable in the health-stress-coping equation; it is the cause of an experience, not the experience itself.

• Definition: Stress is viewed as a life event, situation, or environmental trigger that necessitates a change in a

person's life.

• Focus: It focuses on external, often objective, occurrences (e.g., job loss, marriage, moving) rather than

internal subjective feelings.

• Mechanism: It assumes that when these environmental demands exceed an individual's adaptive capacity,

they produce stress.

• Limitation: It is critiqued for failing to account for individual differences in how people perceive, interpret,
• and react to the same stimulus.Life Events Scale
• refers to a standardized measure used to assess major
• life events, which aims to minimize bias by removing
• non-stressful events and specifying a recall period,
• although it may still be subject to issues like

underreporting and subjective interpretations.CONT… Life event scales are tools designed to measure and quantify stress based on the stimulus-based perspective. The most famous is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), developed by Holmes and Rahe in 1967.

• Structure: The SRRS consists of a list of life events, ranging from major (death of a spouse) to minor (minor

violations of the law).

• Scoring (Life Change Units): Each event is assigned a numeric weight Life Change Units indicating the

amount of change/readjustment required.

• Purpose: The goal is to calculate a cumulative stress score over a specific period (usually 6 to 12 months) to

predict the likelihood of developing physical or mental illness.

• Key Findings: Research using these scales suggests that both positive (e.g., marriage) and negative (e.g.,

divorce) changes require adaptation, and a high total score increases the risk of illness.Explain response-based perspective and psychology of stress

• The response-based perspective, or Response-Based
• Practice (RBP), is a framework focusing on how individuals
• actively resist and respond to adversity, oppression, or violence,

rather than viewing them as passive victims.The Response-Based Perspective This perspective focuses heavily on the physiology of stress what happens inside the body when we feel "stressed out."

• It’s Not About the Cause: Whether the demand is good (a promotion) or bad (a firing), the body

initiates a similar, nonspecific, and automatic physiological reaction to adapt to the change.

• The Goal is Survival: The response is an evolutionary mechanism designed to keep us safe,

originally helping us escape physical threats.

• The Generalized Mechanism: Selye identified the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which
• describes the body’s three-stage response to prolonged stress:CONT…
• Alarm Reaction: The "fight-or-flight" response. Adrenaline kicks in,
• heart rate increases, and the body prepares to act.
• Stage of Resistance: The body attempts to adapt to the ongoing
• stressor, attempting to return to normal functioning while remaining on
• high alert.
• Stage of Exhaustion: If the stressor lasts too long, the body's
• resources are depleted. This is where "wear and tear" occurs, leading
• to illness, burnout, or physical damage.Psychology of Stress
• While the response-based perspective focuses on the bodily reaction, the psychology of

stress explains how our thoughts, perceptions, and appraisals make us react.

Psychological Components:

• Perception and Appraisal: Stress is subjective. It is "in the eye of the beholder." An
• event only causes stress if the person appraises (judges) it as threatening, harmful, or
• beyond their resources to handle.
• o Primary Appraisal: Is this a threat? (e.g., "This deadline is impossible.")
• o Secondary Appraisal: Can I handle it? (e.g., "I don't have enough time.")CONT….
• Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus & Folkman): This model bridged the gap between the
• stimulus (the event) and the response. It says stress happens when we perceive that
• environmental demands exceed our personal resources.
• Coping Mechanisms: This is how we manage the stress response:
• o Problem-Focused Coping: Taking action to change the situation (e.g., studying
• harder).
• o Emotion-Focused Coping: Trying to change the emotional reaction to the stress
• (e.g., meditation, seeking support, or ignoring it).Explain post-traumatic stress
• Post-traumatic stress is a mental health condition triggered by
• experiencing or witnessing terrifying, life-threatening, or exceptionally
• distressing events. While it is normal to experience temporary stress

reactions after such events, PTS occurs when these symptoms persist for more than a month, causing significant impairment in daily life.Common Symptoms of PTS Symptoms often appear within three months of the event but can sometimes emerge years later. They generally fall into four categories:

• Intrusive Memories: Recurrent, unwanted distressing memories, vivid flashbacks, or nightmares.
• Avoidance: Actively avoiding people, places, or situations that remind one of the trauma, including

avoiding thoughts or feelings about it.

• Negative Changes in Thinking/Mood: Persistent negative emotions (fear, anger, guilt), trouble

recalling aspects of the trauma, or feeling detached from others.

• Hyperarousal and Reactivity: Being easily startled, irritability, difficulty sleeping (insomnia), and
• outbursts of anger.Causes of PTS
• PTS stems from exposure to traumatic events, such as:
• Violent personal assaults (sexual assault, mugging, robbery).
• Serious accidents (road accidents).
• Combat and wartime experiences.
• Natural or human-caused disasters.
• Childhood abuse or neglect.
• Serious health problems/medical trauma.Explain interaction perspective and coping scales
• Interaction perspective on coping suggests that how a person
• manages stress is not just based on their personality, but on the
• constant, dynamic interplay between themselves and the specific
• situation.
• Coping scales are research instruments designed to measure these

cognitive and behavioral efforts used to manage stressful situations.cont. …

• Interaction Perspective:

• Person-Situation Interaction: Coping is determined by the interaction between the characteristics of the

individual (e.g., personality, experience) and the demands of the specific situation (e.g., work, relationships, health).

• Situated Coping: This approach suggests that a person’s coping strategy changes depending on the situation.

For example, someone might use problem-focused coping for a work crisis but emotion-focused coping for a health problem.

• Relevance to Resilience: Research suggests that this interaction, rather than a fixed coping style, dictates

how well a person recovers from stress (resilience).

• Person-Environment Fit: Stress occurs when the demands of the situation exceed the individual’s resources.
• Role of Social Interaction: Social interaction can either cause stress (e.g., negative social encounters) or

reduce it (e.g., social support).

• Individual Differences: Personality, past experiences, and cognitive styles significantly influence how a

stressor is perceived and managed.Coping Scales (Measurement Tools) Coping scales are questionnaires used to identify the specific cognitive and behavioral strategies a person uses to handle stress. They are crucial for studying how people manage emotions and situations.

• Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL): A classic tool that categorizes responses into eight areas: accepting

responsibility, confrontational coping, distancing, escape-avoidance, planned problem solving, positive reappraisal, seeking social support, and self-controlling.

• COPE Scale (Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced): Developed by Charles S. Carver, this scale covers

12–15 strategies, including active coping, planning, humor, acceptance, religion, and disengagement.

• Coping Strategy Indicator (CSI): A tool that categorizes coping into problem-focused, emotion-focused, and

avoidance strategies.

• Situated Coping Questionnaire for Adults (SCQA): A tool specifically designed to assess coping strategies within

the "person-situation" framework.

• Meaning-Centered Coping Scale (MCCS): Focuses on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral strategies that maintain

meaning in life during adversity.Stress management approaches include:

Physical Stress Management

• Exercise: Engage in regular physical activity to release endorphins,
• which counteract stress hormones. Even short, 15-minute walks can
• make a difference.
• Sleep: Maintain a consistent sleep schedule to help your body regulate
• and recover from daily stressors.
• Diet: Consume a balanced diet, limiting excessive caffeine and alcohol,
• which can exacerbate anxietyCont….
• Mental and Emotional Techniques
• Relaxation Exercises: Practice deep breathing, meditation, yoga, or
• muscle relaxation to calm the mind.
• Mindfulness: Focus on the present moment, perhaps by engaging
• your five senses (5-4-3-2-1 technique) to break cycles of worry.
• Perspective: Journaling or practicing gratitude can shift focus from
• negative to positive thoughts.cont….
• Lifestyle and Behavioral Changes
• Time Management: Prioritize tasks, break projects into smaller steps, and avoid
• over-committing to reduce feelings of overwhelm.
• Social Connection: Reach out to friends, family, or support groups to share your
• load.
• Set Boundaries: Learn to say "no" to excessive demands to protect your personal

time.

• "Me" Time: Dedicate time for hobbies or activities you enjoy.Explain if stress makes patient susceptible
• to physical illness

Weakened Immune System (Susceptibility to Infections)

• Reduced Defenses: Chronic stress causes sustained high levels of cortisol, which suppresses

immune cell function, making it harder for the body to fight off infections, (white blood cells) that fight off infections.

• Results: Patients under chronic stress are more susceptible to colds, the flu, and other viral

infections. It can also delay wound healing.

Chronic Inflammation (Underlying Chronic Disease)

• The Problem: Chronic stress creates persistent, low-grade inflammation.
• Results: This contributes to the development and exacerbation of conditions like cardiovascular
• disease, diabetes, arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).Cont….

Cardiovascular System Strain

• High Blood Pressure: Chronic stress keeps adrenaline and cortisol elevated,
• making the heart beat faster and blood vessels constrict. Over time, this leads to
• high blood pressure (hypertension), which increases the risk of heart attack or

stroke.

Digestive System Issues

• Brain-Gut Axis: The brain and gut are closely linked. Stress can cause
• digestive issues ranging from nausea, constipation, or diarrhea to more complex
• conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and acid reflux (GERD).Cont…

Musculoskeletal Issues

• Muscle Tension: The body keeps muscles tense to protect against injury. If stress is
• constant, those muscles cannot relax, leading to chronic tension headaches, neck pain,
• and back pain.
• Reproductive and Metabolic Issues
• Hormonal Imbalance: High stress can disrupt menstruation and decrease sexual desire

or capability in both men and women.

• Weight Gain: Cortisol can cause the body to store extra calories as visceral (belly) fat,
• which acts as an active organ that releases chemicals increasing the risk of chronic
• diseases.END OF TOPIC FOUR

General psychology