Developing Research Tools
Session 16: Developing Research Tools
Total Session Time: 120 minutes+240 minutes assignment
Prerequisites
None
Learning Tasks
By the end of this session students are expected to be able to:
List common research tools
Identify appropriate data-collection techniques
Prepare data-collection tools
Conduct out an interview
Resources Needed
Flip charts, marker pens, and masking tape
Black/white board and chalk/whiteboard markers
Computer and LCD Projector
Handout 16.1: Overview of data collection techniques
Handout 16.2: Advantages and disadvantages of various data collection tools
Handout 16.3: Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Handout 16.4: Functions of FGD Facilitator
SESSION OVERVIEW
Activity/
Step Time Content
Method
1 05 minutes Presentation Introduction, Learning Tasks
Presentation Common Research Tools
2 10 minutes
Buzzing
3 10 minutes Presentation Identification of Data-Collection Techniques
4 45 minutes Presentation Preparation for Data-Collection Tools
35 minutes Presentation Conducting an Interview
5
Brainstorming
6 05 minutes Presentation Key points
7 05 minutes Presentation Evaluation
8 05 minutes Presentation Assignment
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SESSION CONTENTS
STEP1: Presentation of Session Title and Learning Tasks (5 minutes)
READ or ASK students to read the learning tasks and clarify
ASK students if they have any questions before continuing
STEP 2: Common Research Tools (10 minutes)
Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)
ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes:
What are common research tools?
ALLOW few pairs to respond and let other pairs to add on points not mentioned
WRITE their response on the flip chart/board
CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the content below
common tools used include questionnaire for interview and checklist
used
research techniques.
consuming phase in the development of most research proposals.
o What exactly do we want to know, according to the objectives and variables
we have?
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o Is questioning the right technique to obtain all answers, or additional
techniques, such
as observations or analyses of records are needed?
o Who to ask questions and what techniques will be used?
o Do you understand the topic sufficiently to design a questionnaire, or
o Do you need some loosely structured interviews with key informants or a
focus group
discussion first to orientate ourselves?
o Are your informants mainly literate or illiterate?
o How large is the sample that will be interviewed?
questions
used in interviews.
possibilities:
o Open-ended questions, (allowing for completely open as well as partially
categorized
answers).
o Closed questions.
o Open-Ended Questions permit free responses which should be recorded in
the
respondents’ own words.
o Open questions are useful for obtaining in-depth information on
Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar.
Opinions, attitudes and suggestions of informants, or Sensitive issues.
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o Allow you to probe more deeply into issues of interest being raised.
o Issues not previously thought of when planning the study may be explored,
thus providing valuable new insights on the problem.
o Information provided in the respondents’ own words might be useful as
examples or
illustrations, which add interest to the final report.
o Skilled interviewers are needed to get the discussion started and focused on
relevant
issues and to record all information collected.
o A big risk is incomplete recording of all relevant issues covered in the
discussion.
o Analysis is time-consuming and requires experience; otherwise important data
may be
Lost
o Thoroughly train and supervise the interviewers or select experienced
research assistants.
o Prepare a list of further questions to keep at hand to use to probe for
answer(s) in a
systematic way.
o Pre-test open-ended questions and, if possible, pre-categorize the most
common responses
o In interviews questions are often asked as open-ended questions, but to
facilitate
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recording and analysis, some answers can be pre-categorized. For example:
‘How did you become a member of the Village Health Committee?’
Details stated:
1. Volunteered…………………………………………………………………………….. �
2. Elected at a community meeting…………………………………………………. �
3. Nominated by community leaders…………………………………………………�
4. Nominated by the health staff……………………………………………………… �
5. Other (specify): …………………………………………………………………………………………..�
In this case the first four categories of answers are known, but there may be
other possibilities.
Therefore, there is a category ‘other’ where other answers can be
recorded. During the analysis, these responses can still be further
categorized.
o For open-ended questions, more than one answer is usually allowed.
o Answers can be recorded quickly
o Analysis is easier
o If one pre-categorizes too early, a lot of interesting and valuable information
may never be recorded or may end up in the category ‘other’.
o Interviewers may try to force the information into the categories that are listed
and, by
merely ticking, this additional valuable information will be lost.
o Interviewers may stop after receiving the first answer, whereas more than one
response could be applicable.
o Sometimes, if the respondent hesitates in answering, the interviewer may be
tempted to present some possible answers, thereby causing bias.
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o Frequently, questionnaires have very little space for recording full responses
under “other”, forcing the interviewer to write down a response that
summarizes the respondent’s answer, thereby losing valuable information.
o Clear guidelines have to be provided to interviewers on important issues
For example: If a question leads to an interesting discussion, it should be
completely written down
o Interviewers should be trained to solicit discussion
o Categorize questions for which all possible categories of responses are
known, e.g., some health practices (Antimalarial use: currently using, ever
used, and never used).
o These questions, when used, will always be followed by other questions
asking for elaboration on reasons and conditions for use or non-use of the
practice.
o Closed questions have a list of possible options or answers from which the
respondents must choose.
o Closed questions are most commonly used for background variables such as
age, marital status or education, in case of age and education take the exact
values and categorize them during data analysis.
For example:
What is your opinion on the following statement: (Circle one response).
Women who are pregnant do not use antimalarial
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waste
time obtaining more information than one needs.
For example:
may ask:
o Did you eat any of the following foods yesterday?’ (Circle yes if at least one
item in
each set of items is eaten.)
Peas, beans, lentils Yes No
Fish or meat Yes No
Eggs Yes No
Milk or cheese Yes No
Insects Yes No
o It saves time
o Comparing responses of different groups, or of the same group over time,
becomes easier
o In case of illiterate respondents, the interviewer may be tempted to read the
list of
possible answers in the given sequence, thereby influencing the choice of
response and introducing bias.
o Take objectives and variables as a starting point.
o Decide what questions will be needed to measure or (in the case of qualitative
studies) to define your variables and reach your objectives.
o Formulate one or more questions that will provide the information needed for
each
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variable.
o Check whether each question measures one thing at a time.
o Avoid leading questions.
A question is leading if it suggests a certain answer.
For example: Do you think that people have to give bribes at hospital X to
be seen by a doctor? Hardly leaves room for ‘no’ or for other options.
A better question would be: Have you recently visited hospital X?
This would be followed by a series of other probing questions such as:
o Ask sensitive questions in a socially acceptable way.
Questions relating to abortion, sexual practices of adolescents, or AIDS
and mental illness in the family are usually sensitive.
o Sequencing the questions: design your interview schedule or questionnaire to
be
‘informant friendly’.
The sequence of questions must be logical for the informant and allow, as
much as possible, for a ‘natural’ conversation, even in more structured
interviews.
o A separate, introductory page is attached to each questionnaire, explaining
the
purpose of the study, requesting the informant’s consent to be interviewed
and
assuring confidentiality of the data obtained.
o Each questionnaire has a heading and space to insert the number, date and
location of
the interview, and, if required, the name of the informant.
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o Layout is such that questions belonging together appear together visually.
o If the questionnaire is long, use subheadings for groups of questions.
o Sufficient space is provided for answers to open-ended questions, categories
such as
‘other’ and for comments on pre-categorized questions.
on the right
half of the page).
o If interviews will be conducted in one or more local languages, the
questionnaire
should be translated in order to standardize the way questions will be asked.
o After having it translated you should have it retranslated into the original
language by
a different person.
o Compare the two versions for differences and make decisions concerning the
final
o phrasing of difficult concepts.
o All steps discussed above apply to written questionnaires as well as to
guides/questionnaires used in interviews.
o Self-administered questionnaires are most commonly used in large-scale
surveys using predominantly pre-categorized answers among literate study
populations.
o In exploratory studies which require intensive interaction with informants in
order to gain better insight in an issue,
o Written questionnaires may sometimes be useful in small-scale studies on
sensitive
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topics.
They are usually combined with other tools e.g. FGD on sensitive issues like sexual
behavior.
o Checklists can be used to systematically observe human behavior or the
condition of
specific equipment (e.g. fridge, expiring dates of medicines, or completeness
of records).
o Observations can be relatively open or can be predetermined comparisons of
reality
against fixed standards.
o The objectives of the study determine the content of a checklist.
o A checklist includes all the items or points that must be considered during an
observation in the field, or when extracting data from existing records.
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STEP 3: Identification of Data-Collection Techniques (10 minutes)
Activity: Buzzing (5 minutes)
ASK students to pair up and buzz on the following question for 2 minutes
ALLOW few students to respond
WRITE their responses on flipchart or board
CLARIFY and SUMMARIZE by using the contents below
information for the study.
study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.
in a conclusive way. Example of haphazard data collection: During a nutrition survey
three different weighing scales were used in three villages.
o The researchers did not record which scales were used in which village.
o After completion of the survey it was discovered that the scales were not standardized
and indicated different weights when weighing the same child.
o It was therefore impossible to conclude in which village malnutrition was most
prevalent.
o Reviewing documents
o Observing/observation
o Interviewing (face-to-face)
o Administering written questionnaires
o Focus group discussions
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o Documents to be reviewed can be obtained from dispensary, health center,
and hospital records.
For example:
o Analysis of the information routinely collected by health facilities can be very
useful for identifying problems such as flows of drug supply or dispensing
o Other sources of data may be:
Health Information Management System, census,
Unpublished reports and publications in archives and libraries or in offices,
Newspapers and published case histories
o It is inexpensive, because data is already there
o It Permits examination of trends over the past
o Data are not always easily accessible
o Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may arise
o Information may be inaccurate or incomplete
o Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching
and recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or
phenomena
o Observation of human behavior is a much-used data collection technique
o It can be undertaken in different ways:
Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she
observes
For example, a doctor hospitalized with a broken hip, who now observes
hospital procedures from within.
o Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or
concealed,
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but does not participate.
o Observation becomes a scientific tool and method of data collection for the
researcher, when:
It serves a formulated research purpose.
Is systematically planned and recorded.
Is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability
o Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is accurately done
o The information relates to what is currently happening
o Not complicated by either past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
o Independent of respondent’s willingness to respond and hence less
demanding on active cooperation on the part of the respondents
o Suitable in studies which deal with subjects who are not capable of giving
verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other
o It is an expensive method
o Information provided by this method is very limited
o Sometimes unforeseen events may interfere with the observational task
o Some subjects are rarely accessible to direct observation
o If subjects know that they are being observed, they may change their behavior
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o An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of
respondents, either individually or as a group
o Requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-
face contact to the interviewee or through other means of communication like
telephone
o Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by
writing them
down (either during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or by
tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both
o Detailed information can be obtained
o Interviewer could overcome resistance of the respondent, if any.
Provides flexibility to the interviewer to restructure, clarify, or add probe
questions
Observation can also be applied during interview
Is suitable for use with both literates and illiterates
Has higher response rate than written questionnaires
The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the
respondent’s personal characteristics and environment.
o It is very expensive and time consuming especially when the sample is large
o Chances of Interviewer as well as interviewee’s bias are high
o People with certain high-level positions like officials or executives may not be
easily
approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate
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o Creating effective rapport with the interviewee may be a difficult
o Some subjects may demand incentives during data collection process
o There may be a language barrier between an interviewer and interviewee
o Interviewers should be carefully selected and trained
o They must possess technical competence (interviewing and interpersonal
skills)
o They should be able to create an atmosphere of trust and confidence
o A written questionnaire (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is
a data
collection method in which written questions are presented that are to be
answered by the respondents in written form. The questions can be either
open-ended or closed (with pre categorized answers).
o A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:
Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer
the questions
and asking for mailed responses;
Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving
oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the
questionnaires; or
Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later
o Low cost when study is large
o Free from interviewer bias
o Respondents have adequate time to give out their answers
o Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can be reached
o Used in large studies
o Permits anonymity and may result in more honest responses.
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o Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires
o Bias due to non-response is undetermined
o Used only when respondents are educated and cooperating
o Control over questionnaire may be lost
o Not flexible once the questionnaire has been dispatched out
o Ambiguous replies or omissions creating difficult in interpretation
o Slowest method of all when mailing is used
o FGD allows a group of 6 – 12 informants to freely discuss a certain subject
with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter during which group members talk
freely and spontaneously about a certain topic.
o Characteristics and Uses of Focus Group Discussions
A FGD is a qualitative method.
A FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction.
The idea is that group members discuss the topic among themselves, with
guidance from the facilitator.
o FGD techniques can be used to:
Focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by exploring in
greater
depth the problem to be investigated and its possible causes.
Formulate appropriate questions for more structured, larger scale surveys.
Develop appropriate messages for health education programmes and later
evaluate the messages for clarity
Explore controversial topics. For example: Sexual behavior is a
controversial topic in the sense that males and females judge sexual
relations and sexuality often from very different perspectives.
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o Advantages of FGD
The researcher can interact with the participants, pose, follow up
questions or ask
questions that probe more deeply.
Results can be easier to understand than complicated statistical data.
The researcher can get information from non-verbal responses such as
facial expressions or body language.
Information is provided more quickly than if people were interviewed
separately.
o The small sample size means the groups might not be a good representation
of the larger population
o Group discussions can be difficult to steer and control, so time can be lost to
irrelevant topics
o Respondents can feel peer pressure to give similar answers to the
moderators’ questions
o The moderator’s skills in phrasing questions along with setting can affect
responses and skew results
Summary of Data collection Techniques and Tools
Data Collection Techniques Tools
watch, scales, microscope…
questionnaire • Questionnaire
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Bias: Is a distortion in the collected data so that it does not represent reality
o Defective instruments
Questionnaires
Fixed or closed questions on topics about which little is known (often
asking the ‘wrong things’).
Open-ended questions without guidelines on how to ask (or to answer)
them vaguely phrased questions
Leading questions that cause the respondent to believe one answer
would be preferred over another or questions placed in an illogical order
o Weighing scales or other measuring equipment that are not standardized
o These sources of bias can be prevented by:
Carefully planning the data collection process
By pre-testing the data collection tools
o Observer bias
Can easily occur when conducting observations or utilizing loosely
structured group or individual interviews.
There is a risk that the data collector will only see or hear things in which
she or he is interested or will miss information that is critical to the
research.
o Effect of the interview on the informant
The informant may mistrust the intention of the interview and avoid certain
questions or give misleading answers.
For example: in a survey on alcoholism you ask school children: ‘
Does your father sometimes get drunk?’ Many will probably deny that he
does, even if it is true
o Such bias can be reduced by:
Adequately introducing the purpose of the study to informants.
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Phrasing questions on sensitive issues in a positive way.
Taking sufficient time for the interview and by assuring informants that the
data collected will be confidential.
o Information bias
Sometimes the information itself has weaknesses.
Medical records may have many blanks or be unreadable. This tells
something about the quality of the data and has to be recorded.
For example, in a compliance of TB drugs study the percentage of non-
compliant patient with an incomplete or missing address should be
calculated.
o Another common information bias is due to gaps in people’s memory this is
called
memory or recall bias.
For example: A mother may not remember all details of her child’s last
diarrhea
episode and of the treatment she gave two or three months afterwards.
For such common diseases it is advisable to limit the period of recall, asking,
for
example, ‘Has your child had diarrhea over the past two weeks?’
STEP 4: Preparation for Data-Collection Tools (45 minutes)
Questionnaires and interview schedules are used to collect information for quantitative
research
The steps of designing them are the same even though they are used for different data
collection techniques; i.e. Self-administered questionnaire and interviewing respectively
Before designing questionnaires consider the following:
o Study objectives and variables
o Be clear of what you want to know or measure.
o Ascertain whether all required information is going to be obtained by questioning
only or not
o How much is known about the problem being investigated. Familiar? Unfamiliar?
his determines whether closed/open questions should be used.
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o The number of subjects to be studied. This determines how much of open/closed
questions to be used
Open-ended (free response) questions: respondents are not given options to choose; theyy
answer in their own words
Closed questions (fixed alternatives): respondents are given alternative answers to choose
from
o Should measure the variable under study
o Should be ones to which respondents are expected to know the answers
o Should be clear and unambiguous
o phrased in simple language; avoid technical terms
o Contain one idea only
o Should not be offensive
o Should not suggest an answer (leading)
o first step: Deciding on the content
Refer to the study objectives and variables
Think of the question(s) needed to measure the variable
o Second step: Formulating the questions
Formulate one (or more) question (s) that will provide the required information
Make sure that the questions satisfies the requirements discussed earlier
o Third step: Sequencing the questions
Arrange them in a logical sequence to allow a natural discussion (consumer
friendly)
Begin with non-sensitive questions and pose the sensitive ones later
o Fourth step: Formatting the questionnaire
Questionnaires normally have two major sections
Introductory section. This precedes the questions and have the following contents
o Questions section. This bears the questions and the following should be
ensured
Related questions should appear together
There is sufficient space for respondents to fill in their responses to open-ended
questions
The boxes for pre-categorized responses are placed in consistent manner
There are reserved boxes for computer coding for computer aided data analysis
Formatting should ensure that the questionnaire is user friendly
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o Fifth step: Translation
Translation of the questionnaire into language familiar to all respondents should
be done if the original version is in a different language.
o Sixth step: Pretesting
Before embarking on actual data collection,, it is important to check whether the
questionnaire gathers the information expected and whether both the interviewer
and interviewee feel at ease with it.
o Designing data collection forms involves
Step 1: Clarifying the specific needs of your application
Step 2: Identifying the information you want to work with
Step 3: Then devising a design that best meets your need
o A checklist is a tool for identifying the presence or absence of conceptual knowledge,
skills, or behaviors
o Developing a checklist involves the following steps
Step 1: Review the learning outcome and associated criteria for success
State the level of success required for the checklist to be considered completed, In
most cases, all items must be checked
Decide on the response such as ―Yes‖ or ―No‖, or simply have a box to be
checked once the item has been completed
Step 2: From a procedure, process, or task description list, pick those items that
are required for a good performance or product
completion of the task
Step 4: Write clear instructions for the observer
Step 5: Review the task descriptions for details and clarity
Step 6: Format the checklist
Step 7: Ask for feedback from other instructors before using it with learners
o Checklists are used for identifying whether key tasks in a procedure, process, or
activity have been done in complete and in a systematic manner.
STEP 5: Conducting an Interview (35 minutes)
Activity: Brainstorming (10 minutes)
Ask students to brainstorm on the following question:
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ALLOW few students to respond?
WRITE their responses on the flip chart/ board
CLARIFY and SUMMARISE by using the content below
o The interviewer-informant relationship and interview conditions
o An interviewer needs to have the skills of turning an informant into a partner
Partnership between interviewer and informant implies that the interviewer will try to
minimize the social distance between him/herself and the informant
o a researcher has to invest in the relationship
o First she /he has to be clear to the informant about the purpose of the interview and
the study.
Enough information should be given to raise the interest of informants and to
enable them to judge whether they would like to participate or not.
Consent has to be obtained before the interview
o Second: Interviewers should try to blend in the environment. In order to do so:
Clothing of interviewers should be culturally acceptable and as simple as possible
Sitting arrangements for interviewer(s) and informant(s) should preferably be at
the same height
Gender relations have to be respected.
an interviewer should show interest in what the informant says, be at ease (never
in a hurry); Make the informant feel at ease
The environment should also be supportive of the interview situation.
Anything which disturbs (noise, other people listening, a formal surrounding)
should if possible be avoided
Tape recording may be an enabling or a disturbing environmental factor in the
interview
Informants should be asked for their consent before use
o Third: The interviewer‘s tasks
The interviewer has a number of other tasks:
Posing questions
Evaluating answers and probing for elaboration or more precision in case of a
superficial or invalid answer
Noting down answers
Leading the discussion, but at the same time encouraging the informant to give
spontaneous information relevant to the topic by letting him/her talk
Keeping control over the interview
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At the end, the interviewer should summarize the interview
after-interview' discussions and questions should always be recorded, like all
spontaneous information, because discussions can shed light on complicated, not
yet fully clear issues from many preceding interviews.
o Fourth: Training the research team/assistants
Research assistants should be taught basic interview techniques, such as:
Asking questions in a neutral manner
Not showing by words or expression what answers one expects
Not showing agreement, disagreement or surprise
Recording answers to open questions precisely as they are provided, without
sifting or interpreting them
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STEP 6: Key Points (5 minutes)
checklists
questionnaire, FGD , review of information available and Observation
research
STEP 7: Evaluation (5 minutes)
STEP 8: Assignment (5 minutes)
Activity: Take Home Assignment (05 minutes)
DIVIDE students in groups or individuals
ASK the students to work on the following Assignment
variables. Refer to the matrix with data collection techniques and responsible tools
to avoid bias as much as possible.
ALLOCATE time for students to do the assignment and submit
REFER students to recommended reference
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References
Hardon A, Boonmongkon P, and Streefland P. et al (2001). Applied Health research,
Anthropology of health and health care, (3rd Ed) Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Het
Spinhuis Publishers
Beaglehole R, Bonita R and Kjellstrom (1993) Basic epidemiology: Geneva, Switzerland:
World Health Organization,
Kothari C.R (1985). Research Methodology – Methods and techniques, (2nd ed); New Delhi,
India; Wiley Eastern Limited
Stewart A (2001). Basic Statistics and epidemiology, A practical guide,; London, United
Kingdom: Radcliffe Medical Press,
Varkevisser, C. M, Pathmanathan, I and Brownlee, A (1991). Designing and Conducting
Health Systems Research Projects, Vol. 2 Part I: Ottawa, Canada: IDRC
Polit, D. F and Beck, C. T (2004). Nursing Research – Principles and Methods, (7th Ed):
Philadelphi, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
Empire State College (2018). Questions or feedback about ESC's Online Writing Center
https://www.esc.edu/online-writing-center/resources/research/research-paper-
steps/developing-questions/
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Handout 16.1: Overview of Data Collection Techniques
Data collection techniques refer to a variety of methods which are used to gather
information for the study.
Data collection techniques allow to systematically collect information about the objects of
study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.
In the collection of data, we have to be systematic.
If data are collected haphazardly then it will be difficult to answer research questions
in a conclusive way.
Common Data Collection Techniques in Use
o Reviewing documents
o Observing/observation
o Interviewing (face-to-face)
o Administering written questionnaires
o Focus group discussions
Reviewing Documents
o Documents to be reviewed can be obtained from dispensary, health center, and
hospital records.
For example, analysis of the information routinely collected by health facilities
can be very useful for identifying problems such as flows of drug supply or
increases in the incidence of certain diseases.
o Other sources of data may be Health Information Management System, census,
unpublished reports and publications in archives and libraries or in offices,
newspapers
and published case histories
Limitations of Reviewing Documents
o Data are not always easily accessible.
o Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may arise.
o Information may be inaccurate or incomplete.
Observation Technique
o Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and
recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.
o Observation of human behavior is a much-used data collection technique.
It can be undertaken in different ways:
Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she
observes.
hospital procedures from within.
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o Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed,
but does not participate.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and method of data collection for the researcher,
when:
o It serves a formulated research purpose.
o Is systematically planned and recorded.
o Is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Advantages of Observation Method
o Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is accurately done.
o The information relates to what is currently happening.
o Not complicated by either past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
o Independent of respondent‘s willingness to respond and hence less demanding on
active cooperation on the part of the respondents.
o Suitable in studies which deal with subjects who are not capable of giving verbal
reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
Limitations of Observation Method
o It is an expensive method
o Information provided by this method is very limited
o Sometimes unforeseen events may interfere with the observational task
o Some subjects are rarely accessible to direct observation
o If subjects know that they are being observed, they may change their behaviour
Interviewing Technique
o An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of
respondents, either individually or as a group.
o Requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact
to the interviewee or through other means of communication like telephone.
Limitations of Reviewing Documents
o Data are not always easily accessible.
o Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may arise.
o Information may be inaccurate or incomplete.
Observation Technique
o Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and
recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.
o Observation of human behavior is a much-used data collection technique.
o It can be undertaken in different ways:
Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she
observes.
hospital procedures from within.
o Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or
concealed, but does not participate.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and method of data collection for the researcher,
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when:
o It serves a formulated research purpose.
o Is systematically planned and recorded.
o Is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Advantages of Observation Method
o Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is accurately done.
o The information relates to what is currently happening.
o Not complicated by either past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
o Independent of respondent‘s willingness to respond and hence less demanding on
active cooperation on the part of the respondents.
o Suitable in studies which deal with subjects who are not capable of giving verbal
reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
Limitations of Observation Method
o It is an expensive method
o Information provided by this method is very limited
o Sometimes unforeseen events may interfere with the observational task
o Some subjects are rarely accessible to direct observation
o If subjects know that they are being observed, they may change their behavior
Interviewing Technique
o An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of
respondents, either individually or as a group.
o Requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact
to the interviewee or through other means of communication like telephone.
o Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them
down (either during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or by tape-
recording the responses, or by a combination of both.
Advantages of the Interview Method
o Detailed information can be obtained.
o Interviewer could overcome resistance of the respondent, if any.
o Provides flexibility to the interviewer to restructure, clarify, or add probe questions.
o Observation can also be applied during interview.
o Is suitable for use with both literates and illiterates.
o Has higher response rate than written questionnaires.
o The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent‘s
personal characteristics and environment.
Limitations of Interview
o It is very expensive and time consuming especially when the sample is large.
o Chances of Interviewer as well as interviewee‘s bias are high.
o People with certain high level positions like officials or executives may not be easily.
approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
o Creating effective rapport with the interviewee may be a difficult.
o Some subjects may demand incentives during data collection process.
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o There may be a language barrier between an interviewer and interviewee.
Pre-Requisites and Basic Tenets of Interviewing
o Interviewers should be carefully selected and trained
o They must possess technical competence (interviewing and interpersonal skills)
o They should be able to create an atmosphere of trust and confidence
Written Questionnaires
o A written questionnaire (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a data
o collection method in which written questions are presented that are to be answered by
the respondents in written form. The questions can be either open-ended or closed
(with pre categorized answers).
o A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:
Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the
questions and asking for mailed responses;
Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or
written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or
Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.
Advantages of Questionnaires
o Low cost when study is large
o Free from interviewer bias
o Respondents have adequate time to give out their answers
o Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can be reached
o Used in large studies
o Permits anonymity and may result in more honest responses.
Limitations of Questionnaires
o Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires
o Bias due to non-response is undetermined
o Used only when respondents are educated and cooperating
o Control over questionnaire may be lost
o Not flexible once the questionnaire has been dispatched out
o Ambiguous replies or omissions creating difficult in interpretation
o Slowest method of all when mailing is used
Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
o FGD allows a group of 6 – 12 informants to freely discuss a certain subject with the
guidance of a facilitator or reporter during which group members talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic.
Characteristics and Uses of Focus Group Discussions
o A FGD is a qualitative method.
o A FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction.
o The idea is that group members discuss the topic among themselves, with guidance
from the facilitator.
o FGD techniques can be used to:
Focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by exploring in greater
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depth the problem to be investigated and its possible causes.
Formulate appropriate questions for more structured, larger scale surveys.
Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions.
Develop appropriate messages for health education programmes and later evaluate
the messages for clarity.
Explore controversial topics. For example: Sexual behavior is a controversial
topic in the sense that males and females judge sexual relations and sexuality
often from very different perspectives.
Advantages of FGD
o The researcher can interact with the participants, pose, follow up questions or ask
questions that probe more deeply.
o Results can be easier to understand than complicated statistical data.
o The researcher can get information from non-verbal responses such as facial
expressions or body language.
o Information is provided more quickly than if people were interviewed separately.
Limitations of FGD
o The small sample size means the groups might not be a good representation of the
larger population
o Group discussions can be difficult to steer and control, so time can be lost to
irrelevant topics
o Respondents can feel peer pressure to give similar answers to the moderators‘
questions
o The moderators skills in phrasing questions along with setting can affect responses
and skew results
Advantage of using Available Information Usually there is a large amount of data that has
already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analyzed or
published. Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point
in any data collection effort. For example,
o Analysis of the information routinely collected by health facilities can be very useful
for identifying problems in certain interventions or in flows of drug supply, or for
identifying increases in the incidence of certain diseases.
o Analysis of health information system data, census data, unpublished reports and
publications in archives and libraries or in offices at the various levels of health and
health-related services, this may be a study in itself. Usually, however, it forms part of
a study in which other data collection techniques are also used.
o The use of key informants is another important technique to gain access to available
information. Key informants could be knowledgeable community leaders or health
staff at various levels and one or two informative members of the target group (e.g.,
adolescents on their sexual behavior). They can be involved in various stages of the
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research, from the statement of the problem to analysis of the data and development
of recommendations.
o Other sources of available data are newspapers and published case histories, e.g.,
patients suffering from serious diseases, or their relatives, telling their experiences
and how they cope.
o The advantage of using existing data is that: Collection is inexpensive. However, it is
sometimes difficult to gain access to the records or reports required, and the data may
not always be complete and precise enough, or too disorganized.
Note:
In order to retrieve the data from available sources, the researcher will have to
design an instrument such as a checklist or compilation sheet.
In designing such instruments, it is important to inspect the layout of the source
documents from which the data is to be extracted.
For health information system (HIS) data, for example, the data compilation sheet
should be designed in such a way that the items of data can be transferred in the
order in which the items appear in the source document. This will save time and
reduce error.
Interviewing
o An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of
respondents, either individually or as a group. Answers to the questions posed during
an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself
or immediately after the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a
combination of both.
o Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees of flexibility. The two extremes,
high and low degree of flexibility, are described below:
High degree of flexibility:
abortions, the investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions.
responsibilities girls and their partners take to prevent pregnancy (if at all),
and the actions they take in the event of unwanted pregnancies.
respondent falls silent, (e.g., when asked about abortion methods used, who
made the decision and who paid).
often possible to come back to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the
interview.
for interviewing individuals as well as groups of key informants.
understanding of the problem or situation he is investigating, or if the topic is
sensitive. It is frequently applied in exploratory studies.
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o Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful when the researcher is
relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of
respondents being interviewed is relatively large.
o Then questionnaires may be used with a fixed list of questions in a
standard sequence, which have mainly fixed or pre-categorized answers.
o For example: After a number of observations on the (hygienic) behavior of
women drawing water at a well and some key informant interviews on the
use and maintenance of the wells, one may conduct a larger survey on
water use and satisfaction with the quantity and quality of the water.
Administering Written Questionnaires
o A written questionnaire (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a data
collection tool in which written questions are presented that are to be answered by the
respondents in written form. A written questionnaire can be administered in different
ways, such as by:
o Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions
and asking for mailed responses;
o Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written
instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or hand-delivering
questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.
o The questions can be either open-ended or closed (with pre-categorized answers).
Projective Techniques
o When a researcher uses projective techniques, she/he asks an informant to react to
some kind of visual or verbal stimulus. For example:
An informant may be provided with a rough outline of the body and be asked to
draw her or his perception of the conception or onset of an illness.
Another example of a projective technique is the presentation of a hypothetical
question or an incomplete sentence or case/study to an informant (‗story with a
gap‘).
o A researcher may ask the informant to complete in writing sentences such as:
If I were to discover that my neighbor had TB, I would …;
If my wife were to propose that I use condoms, I would…
Or (s) he may ask the informant: Suppose your child suffered from diarrhea, what
would you do?
o Such techniques can easily be combined with semi-structured interviews or written
questionnaires. They are also very useful in FGDs to get people‘s opinion on sensitive
issues.
o Mapping and Scaling
Mapping is a valuable technique for visually displaying relationships and
resources.
In a water supply project for example:
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distance of the homes from the wells, other water systems, etc. It gives
researchers a good overview of the physical situation and may help to
highlight relationships hitherto unrecognized.
stage to sampling.
categorize certain variables that they would not be able to rank themselves.
medicine and ask them to arrange these into piles according to their
usefulness. The informants would then be asked to explain the logic of their
ranking.
Mapping and scaling may be used as participatory techniques in rapid appraisals
or situation analyses. Rapid appraisal techniques and participatory research are
approaches often used in health systems research.
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Handout 16.2: Advantages and disadvantages of using various
data collection tools
Table for advantages and disadvantages of using various data collection tools
Corlien, Pathmanathan, & Brownlee. (2003).
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Handout 16.3: Focus group discussions
Uses of Focus Group Discussions
o Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions. For example:
In District X, the recent national (polio) immunization days (NID) showed widely
different coverage‘s per village (50-90%) and in a number of villages a marked
decrease in coverage was observed compared to last year.
Eight FGD decrease were held with villages‘ mothers, two in town, three in rural
with a marked in NID coverage and three in villages with a high coverage
throughout.
It appeared that overall; the concept NID had raised confusion.
Most people believed that this mass campaign strengthened the children‘s
immunity
Infections.
In the villages with a low NID coverage there had been a high incidence of
malaria in
died.
Mothers therefore believed that the NID campaign was useless.
Develop appropriate messages for health education programmes and later evaluate
the messages for clarity.
For example: A rural health clinic wanted to develop a health education
programme focused on weaning problems most often encountered by mothers in
the surrounding villages and what to do about them.
The focus group discussion could be used for exploring relevant local concepts as
well as for testing drafts when developing the messages.
The messages should be developed and tested in different socio-economic groups
of mothers, as weaning practices may differ with income, means of subsistence
and education of the mothers. Also ethnic differences may have to be taken into
account.
o Explore controversial topics.
For example: Sexual behavior is a controversial topic in the sense that males and
females judge sexual relations and sexuality often from very different
perspectives.
Sexual education has to take this difference into account.
Through FGDs, first with females, then with males, and then with a mixed group
to confront both sexes with the different outcomes of the separate discussions
(listed on flip charts) it becomes easier to bring these differences in the open.
Especially for teenagers, who may have many stereotypes about the other sex or
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be reluctant to discuss the topic openly (particularly girls), such a ‗multi-stage‘
approach is useful.
Strengths and Limitations of FDG
o Implementation of FGDs is an iterative process; each focus group discussion builds
on the previous one, with a slightly elaborated or better-focused set of themes for
discussion.
o Provided the groups have been well chosen, in terms of composition and number (see
o below), FGDs can be a powerful research tool which provides valuable spontaneous
information in a short period of time and at relatively low cost.
o FGD should not be used for quantitative purposes, such as the testing of hypotheses or
the generalization of findings for larger areas, which would require more elaborate
surveys.
o However, FGDs can profitably complement such surveys or other, qualitative
techniques.
o Depending on the topic, it may be risky to use FGDs as a single tool.
o In group discussions, people tend to center their opinions on the most common ones,
on ‗social norms. In reality, opinions and behavior may be more diverse. Therefore it
is advisable to combine FGDs with at least some key informant and in-depth
interviews.
o Explicitly soliciting other views during FGDs should be routine as well.
o In case of very sensitive topics, such as sexual behavior or coping with HIV/AIDS,
FGDs may also have their limitations, as group members may hesitate to air their
feelings and experiences freely.
o One possible remedy is the selection of students who do not know each other (e.g.,
selection of children from different schools in FGDs about adolescent sexual
behavior), while assuring absolute confidentiality.
o It may also help to alternate the FGD with other methods, for example, to precede it
by a self-developed role play on sexual behavior, or to administer a written
questionnaire immediately after the FGD with open questions on sexual behavior in
which the students can anonymously state all their questions and problems. This
worked in Tanzania and Nepal.
How to Conduct a Focus Group Discussion
o Determine the purpose
A FGD can be regarded as a mini-study. It therefore requires one or two clear
objectives.
These objectives will guide the research team in the formulation of discussion
questions.
o Situation analysis
Any FGD requires good knowledge of local conditions. Communities are seldom
or never homogeneous. There are always differences between community
members, for example in education, political power, gender, economic status and
ethnic group.
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These differences will be reflected in their perceptions of the problems they suffer
from and possible solutions.
A researcher must be aware of these differences, otherwise (s)he may miss
important groups of students or obtain a hotchpotch of information.
Similarly, she/she must know which key persons or organizations could be good
entry points for the selection of students in the FGDs (e.g.: women‘s groups,
parent associations, youth clubs, etc.).
For example: In an intervention study on sexual health among out-of-school youth
in an urban area, the researcher first planned some interviews with key informants.
He selected the leaders of a political youth club and of a Christian youth club and
some teachers, with whom he thoroughly discussed his research topic.
each of the three groups, separated into boys and girls, draw maps of the town
and asked them to mark places which they thought riskful in terms of sexual
behavior (easy contacts, unprotected sex).
identify wider networks of adolescents at risk who had to be included in the
study.
Points to be Considered when Preparing the FGD
o Recruitment of students: Students should be roughly of the same socio-economic
group or have a similar background in relation to the issue under investigation. The
age and sexual composition of the group should facilitate free discussion.
o Selection of students: If you are an outsider in the research area, you may have to rely
on your key informants for the first selection of students in FGDs.
o Your key informants to whom you have explained thoroughly the purpose and the
process of the FGD might each suggest some individuals who could be invited to a
focus group discussion.
o Another way of getting students is to conveniently select individuals in a systematic
way, to try and ensure a range of views.
o You might, for example, ask every third or fourth person you find. This method might
be more suitable in urban areas.
o Physical arrangements:
Communication and interaction during the FGD should be encouraged in every
way possible. Arrange the chairs in a circle. Make sure that there will be no
disturbances, sufficient quietness, adequate lighting, etc.
Try to hold the FGD in a neutral setting which encourages students to freely
express their views. A health center, for example, is not a good place to discuss
traditional medical beliefs or preferences for other types of treatment.
Preparation of a discussion guide:
o There should be a written list of topics to be covered, formulated as a series of open-
ended questions.
o Guides for different groups gathered to discuss the same subject may vary slightly,
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depending on their knowledge or attitudes and how the subject should first be
explored with them.
Conducting the session
o One of the members of the research team should act as ‗facilitator‘ or ‗moderator‘ for
the focus group discussion.
o One should serve as ‗recorder‘.
o The facilitator should preferably be as close as possible to the students in their
characteristics (same sex, roughly same age).
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Handout 16.4: Function of Focus Group Facilitator
Functions of the Facilitator of the FDG ( Focus Discussion group)
o The facilitator should NOT act as an expert on the topic. His or her role is to stimulate
and support discussion.
o Introduce the session
Introduce yourself as facilitator and introduce the recorder.
Let students introduce themselves with whatever names they wish to use.
Put the students at ease and explain the purpose of the FGD, the kind of
information needed, and how the information will be used (for the planning of a
health programmes, an education programmes).
Ask permission to use a tape-recorder, let people hear their own voices before the
session starts.
You might offer drinks and allow some informal discussion before the actual
session starts.
o Encourage discussion
Be enthusiastic, lively, and humorous and show your interest in the groups‘ ideas.
Formulate questions and encourage as many students as possible to express their
views.
Remember there are no ‗right‘ or ‗wrong‘ answers.
React neutrally to both verbal and non-verbal responses.
o Encourage involvement
o Avoid a question-and-answer session. Some useful techniques include:
Asking for clarification: ‗Can you tell me more about…?‘
Reorienting the discussion when it goes ‗off the track‘: Saying: ‗Wait, how does
this relate to…?‘
Saying: ‗Interesting point, but how about…?‘
Using one student‘s remark to direct a question to another, for example, ‗Mrs. X
said …, but how about you, Mrs. Y?‘
When dealing with a dominant participant, avoiding eye contact or turning
and changing the subject.
his/her opinion, making more frequent eye contact to encourage his/her
participation is important.
o Deal correctly with sensitive issues.
o If you notice that the discussion stops when dealing with a sensitive topic, you could
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o ask students (if literate) to anonymously write down their responses or opinions on the
topic.
o Alternatively, you could summarize for the group some of the opinions from previous
focus group discussions, focusing on one or two major contrasting opinions.
o Still another strategy is to form sub-groups, and to get a member of the sub-group to
summarize and present the opinions of their sub-group members after which the
whole group can still discuss these opinions.
o Build rapport, empathize
o Observe non-verbal communication.
o Ask yourself, ‗What are they saying? What does it mean to them?‘
o Be aware of your own tone of voice, facial expressions, body language, and those of
the students.
o Avoid being placed in the role of expert
o When asked for your ideas or views by a respondent, remember that you are not there
o to educate or inform.
o Direct the questions back to the group by saying: ‗What do you think‘, ‗What would
you do?‘
o Set aside time, if necessary, after the session to give students the information they
have asked for.
o Do not try to comment on everything that is being said.
o Don‘t feel you have to say something during every pause in the discussion.
o Wait a little and see what happens.
o Control the rhythm of the meeting, but in an unobtrusive way
o Listen carefully and move the discussion from topic to topic. Subtly control the time
allocated to various topics so as to maintain interest.
o If students spontaneously jump from one topic to another, let the discussion continue
for a while since useful additional information may surface; then summarize the
points brought up and reorient the discussion.
o Take time at the end of the meeting to summarize, check for agreement and thank the
Students
o Summarize the main issues brought up, check whether all agree and ask for additional
comments.
o Thank the students and let them know that their ideas have been a valuable
contribution and will be used for planning the proposed research, intervention, or
health education materials.
o Listen for additional comments and spontaneous discussions which occur after the
meeting has been closed.
Functions of the Recorder
o The recorder should keep a record of the content of the discussion as well as
emotional reactions and important aspects of group interaction.
o Assessment of the emotional tone of the meeting and the group process will enable
you to judge the validity of the information collected during the FGD.
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o Items to be recorded include:
Date, time, place
Names and characteristics of students
General description of the group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a
dominant participant, level of interest)
Opinions of students, recorded as much as possible in their own words, especially
for key statements
Emotional aspects (e.g., reluctance, strong feelings attached to certain opinions)
Vocabulary used – particularly in FGDs that are intended to assist in developing
questionnaires or health education materials
Spontaneous relevant discussions during breaks or after the meeting has been
closed
o It is highly recommended that a tape-recorder be used to assist in capturing
information. Even if a tape-recorder is used, notes should be taken as well, in case the
machine malfunctions and so that information will be available immediately after the
session for discussion.
o If there is no reliable tape-recorder available, it is advisable to have two recorders.
o A supplementary role for the recorder could be to assist the facilitator (if necessary)
by drawing his or her attention to: missed comments from students missed topics (the
recorder should have a copy of the discussion guide during the FGD)
Number and Duration of Sessions
o Number of sessions. The number of focus group sessions to be conducted depends
upon project needs, resources, and whether new information is still coming from the
sessions, (that is, whether contrasting views within and between various groups in the
community are still emerging). If not, you may stop.
o One should plan to conduct at least two FGDs for each sub-group (for example, two
for males and two for females). Otherwise you have no way of assessing whether the
information you get from the first FGD is representative for that group.
Duration
o A focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half.
o Generally, the first session with a particular type of group is longer than the following
ones because all of the information is new.
o Thereafter, if all the groups have a similar opinion on particular
topics, the facilitator may be able to move the discussion along more quickly to other
topics which still elicit new points of view.
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